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Since 1996 more than 3,000,000 Gallons (YES, 3 Million Gallons) of Liquid Termiticides have NOT been placed into our Environment as a result of Augustine Exterminators, Inc.’s use of the Sentricon® Termite Colony Elimination System?

that’s A FACT . . .
. . . we protect public health and property while caring for the environment

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Augustine Exterminators, Inc., uses our Integrated Pest Management System whenever we service your home or business.

Augustine offers:

• One time service calls as you may need them;
• Monthly service for more serious problems
  that can occur; and
• Quarterly maintenance programs suited to fit your needs.
• Click here for more details regarding our Advantage Program

Scientific pest management is the knowledgeable use of all pest control methods (sanitation, mechanical and chemical) to benefit mankind's health, welfare, comfort, property and food. Augustine's Integrated Pest Management System is a partnership with the client.

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Residential Services  - The Advantage Program

The Advantage Program is a new concept in residential pest elimination programs. It uses the most advanced technology available to keep your home free of unwanted pests.

In the past, a pest-free home was only achievable by making monthly indoor applications to rid unwanted pests that were finding their way into your home from outdoors. Because of scientific advancements in the field of pest control, most of these pest problems can now be controlled from the outside, before they become a problem, and with less frequent treatments.

The Advantage Program Features

• Convenient and Reliable Service
• One Annual Indoor Treatment
• Four outdoor Perimeter Treatments
• Request for Additional Service
• No additional charge for pests covered under this program. Guaranteed.
  Highly Skilled Technicians
• All service is provided by highly skilled technicians that have been educated and trained in advanced pest elimination techniques.
• Advance Treatment Techniques

Only the most effective treatment techniques have been selected for the Advantage Program. Treatments are specifically focused on pest habitat and habits which allow more precise treatments. This allows the most effective pest elimination and at the same time reduces exposure to
non-target sites.

Advanced Pest Control Products
All products and devices used in the Advantage Program have passed Augustine's stringent pest elimination products review and are viewed by our management team as the most cost effective tools available to keep your home pest-free.

Good Value
Pest elimination programs that are affordable, convenient and live up to their promises are difficult to find. Augustine's team of pest elimination experts have a proven track record of satisfied customers that are available upon request. You will not find a better value in the quest to keep your home pest-free.

• Targeted Pests
• Ants (except Pharaoh and Carpenter)
• Cockroaches (Waterbugs)
• Silverfish
• Crickets
• Box Elder Bugs
• Beetles (except Pantry, Powder Post and Carpet)
• Millipedes and Centipedes
• Spiders (except Brown Recluse)
• Clover Mites and Spider Mites
• Pill Bug and Sow Bugs
• Springtails
• Rats and Mice
• Bumble Bees
• Wasps, Yellow Jackets

Hornets
Our team of highly trained, professional technicians use only the latest scientific pest management methods to benefit your health, welfare, comfort, property and food.Augustine Exterminators' pest management system is more effective and cleaner because we place the right insecticide in the right form, and in the right areas. The chemicals are injected into the areas beyond the reach of humans and pets.Augustine Exterminators offers a complete, effective pest management program designed to fit your needs: the ADVANTAGE PROGRAM, the BASIC QUARTERLY PROGRAM, the CUSTOMIZED COMMERCIAL PROGRAM.

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Augustine's commitment to provide service is our primary objective. If pest ever come back between your regular contracted treatments Augustine Exterminators will return at no extra charge.

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Stinging Insects
Bumble Bee
Honey Bee
Hornet
Yellow Jackets

Other Invaders
Box Elder Bug
Cluster Fly
Cricket
Lady Bug
Clovermite
Red flour beetle

Ticks
American Dog Tick

Rodents
Mouse
Sewer Rat

Flies
Sewer Fly
Phorid/Humpbacked/Scuttle Fly
Fruit-Vinegar Fly
Fungus Gnat

Silverfish
Silverfish

Termites
Eastern Subterranean Termite

Ants
Carpenter Ant
Field Ant
House Ant

Spiders
Domestic House Spider
Brown Recluse

Bed Bugs
Bed Bugs
German Roach
American Roach
Oriental Roach

Pantry Pests
Indianmeal Moth

Fabric Pests
Carpet Beetle
Clothes Moth

INTRODUCTION
This is the most common and widely distributed termite in North America. It occurs south of the line where the average annual minimum temperature is -22F (-30C). This includes southern Ontario, Canada, and southward through the eastern United States and into Texas.

RECOGNITION
Swarmer. About 3/8" (10 mm) long including wings. Body dark brown to almost black. Fontanelle (frontal gland pore) present, may be inconspicuous. Front wing with 2 dark, heavily sclerotized (hardened) veins in front portion, other veins unpigmented except for basal third. Wing translucent (slightly milky) to slightly smoky, with a few barely visible hairs. Front wing scale distinctly larger than hind wing scale, may overlap basal portion of hind wing scale. Leg with tibia darker than tarsus. Soldier. Head rectangular in shape, not narrowed toward front, length about 1.5 times width. Fontanelle (frontal gland pore) dorsal and indistinct. Mandibles lack teeth and with tips, especially left, incurved at about 70-90 degrees. Pronotum flat, almost as wide as head, with width usually greater than 0.90 mm.

SIMILAR GROUPS
(1) Formosan subterranean termite (Coptotermes formosanus) swarmer has wings densely covered with hairs, body pale to brownish yellow and larger (about 1/2"/12-13 mm); soldier with head rounded on sides and tapered toward front, with anterior tubelike fontanelle. (2) Western subterranean (R. hesperus) swarmer with wings brownish gray and tibiae slightly darkened; soldier with head length fully twice width. (3) R. hageni swarmer with body pale yellowish brown; soldier with pronotal width less than or equal to 0.70 mm and mandible points incurved at about 45 degrees. (4) R. virginicus swarmer with wings colorless and ocelli less than their diameter from compound eye; soldier head length 5 mm or less. (5) R. tibialis swarmer with wings whitish, almost colorless and tibiae black to sooty (vs pale tarsi); soldier with pronotal width greater than 0.70 mm but usually less than 0.85 mm and mandible points incurved at about 70-90 degrees. (6) Most other termite swarmers have 3 or more pigmented veins in front wings.

DAMAGE
Subterranean termites eat mostly the spring wood and leave the lignin- containing summer wood which they cannot effectively digest. Hence, damaged wood appears to be layered. Also, soil is typically found in the galleries. A typical mature colony may consist of 60,000 to over a million workers. Sixty thousand workers can/may eat 1/5 ounce or 5 grams of wood each day. At this rate, such a colony could completely consume 2 1/3 linear feet of a pine 2"x4" board in 1 year. However, there may be several colonies associated with a single building.

BIOLOGY
Eastern subterranean termites have 3 castes: worker, soldier, and reproductive (primary and secondary). Colony founding via alates or swarmers proceeds with the swarmers associating in pairs, breaking off their wings and burrowing into the soil. Here they mate and only a few eggs are produced the first year. When the queen is mature she will produce about 5,000-10,000 eggs a year. The queen may live for many years and workers may live 1-2 years.

Several years are required before the colony reaches the typical mature size of 60,000 or more workers. Under ideal conditions a few alates/swarmers may be produced after 3 or 4 years. Swarming typically occurs during the spring but it may possibly be followed by one or more smaller swarms until winter. Swarming occurs during the daytime, typically during the morning of the day following a warm rain.

In the extreme northern states and Canada, swarmers are rarely seen. Colony distribution is patchy because the termites are usually spread in infested wood and wood products such as lumber and firewood. Colony size is much larger, with colonies of 2-3 million foragers not uncommon. 
 

These large colonies forage over larger areas of about 3- 12,000 sq ft (279-1,115 sq m). They actively feed in trees and free-standing poles, in addition to structures. Such colony distribution, size, and foraging patterns are similar to those of Formosan subterranean termites.

HABITS
Eastern subterranean termite colonies are usually located in the ground. Location is usually below the frost line, but above the water table and rock formations. Mud tubes are built to cross areas of adverse conditions between the colony and food sources. They can enter structures through cracks less than 1/16" (1-2mm) wide. However, if a constant source of moisture is available (like leaky pipes). Colonies (called secondary colonies) can exist above ground and without ground contact. Also, true aerial colonies (no ground contact ever existed) are known to exist.

CONTROL
Control involves placing a chemical barrier and/or an in-ground perimeter monitoring-baiting system between the termite colony and the wood of the structure. In addition, all wood-to-soil and rigid foam board/form-to-ground contact should be eliminated (the building owner's responsibility), any wood debris must be removed, and the wood moisture content should be reduced to below 20%. Secondary and aerial colonies are controlled by correcting the moisture problem to dry out the moisture-source area. When it is desirable to rapidly reduce the secondary infestation, this can be done by intergallery injection or surface treatment with a pesticide labeled for these termites. Also available are above-ground termite baiting systems that are placed directly on the termite infested wood.

INTRODUCTION
The black carpenter ant, Camponotus pennsylvanicus (DeGreer), is a native species and the common species in the east. Camponotus modoc Wheeler is the common western species. These ants get their common name from their habit of hollowing out galleries in pieces of wood for nesting purposes. This nesting habit can result in structural damage. Carpenter ants are found throughout the United States.

RECOGNITION
Workers polymorphic, large (1/8-1/2" or 3.5-13 mm) but vary greatly in size; queens about 1/2-5/8" (13-17 mm) long. Color black, combinations of red and black, or completely red or brown. Antenna 12-segmented, without a club. Thorax lacks spines, profile evenly rounded on upper side. Pedicel 1-segmented. Gaster with anal opening round, surrounded by circlet of hairs. Stinger absent. Workers capable of emitting a strong formic acid odor.

Camponotus pennsylvanicus with workers about 1/4-1/2" (6-13 mm) long and completely black except top of gaster with long, pale yellowish hairs pressed against its surface. Camponotus modoc with workers about 1/4-1/2" (5-11 mm) long, dull black with reddish legs and with golden hairs covering abdomen. Queens up to 5/8+" (17+mm) long. Other species black, various combinations of red and black, or completely red or brown. Although carpenter ants do not sting, their bites can be quite painful, especially when they inject formic acid into the wound.

SIMILAR GROUPS
(1) Dark field (Formica spp.) larger yellow (Acanthomyops interjectus), and Allegheny mound (F, exsectoides) ants have profile of thorax not evenly rounded, with distinct impression(s); in addition dark field ants with front and hind margins of node steeply or equally sloped. (2) Velvety tree ants (Liometopum spp.) lack circular anal opening surrounded by circlet of hairs. (3) Other medium to large dark ants with 2-segmented predicel.

DAMAGE
Black carpenter ant colonies are of moderate size, usually containing over 3,000 workers (up to 10-15,000 including satellite nests) when maturity is reached in about 3 to 6 years. The typical western carpenter ant (C. modoc) mature colony contains about 10-20,000 workers, with large colonies having up to 100,000 workers. Developmental time (egg to adult) for workers takes at least 60 days. Workers are polymorphic, with majors, minors and intermediates present. There is usually only one functional, wingless queen per colony. Swarmers are not produced until the colony is more than 2 years old, usually 3.5-4 years old for C. pennsylvanicus and often 6-10 years old for C. modoc. Swarmers appear from May until August in the east and from February through June in the west.

HABITS
Most carpenter ant species establish their first nest in decayed wood and later expand or enlarge this into sound wood. Inside, nests are located in wood (preferably softened by fungus rot), in insulation, and/or in wall voids. Workers are a nuisance when out searching for food but are destructive to timbers, utilized for nesting activities. Outside, nests are typically located in rotting fence posts, stumps, old firewood, dead portions of standing trees, and under stories of fallen logs. The presence of a carpenter ant nest is sometimes indicated by a rustling sound coming from wall voids or from wood where the colony is located. Otherwise, the emergence of swarmers indoors may be the first indication of an indoor colony. Carpenter ants feed primarily on insect honeydew, plant and fruit juices, insects, and other arthropods. Inside, they will also feed on sweets, eggs, meats, cakes, and grease.

The workers forage for distances of up to 300 feet (91.4m) from the nest. They typically enter buildings around door and window frames, eaves, plumbing and utility lines, and shrub and tree branches in contact with the building. Although some workers are active during the day, most activity is from dusk till dawn, with peak activity between 10 pm and 2 am. The trail between the parent and satellite nest is usually about 1/4- 13/15" (6-20 mm) wide and is kept clear of vegetation and debris. It usually follows contours but typically will cut across lawns.

CONTROL
The first step is to determine if the ants present are merely foraging inside or if there is a nest inside. The best indication of a nest is the presence of sawdust piles containing insect body parts. Another indication is the sound produced as the workers remove wood to expand the nest. Outside, check around the building's perimeter for foraging trails, especially in the direction of trees and shrubs; easiest to locate between sunset and sunrise when the ants are most active.

The second step is to locate any inside nests. Look for sawdust piles with insect body parts. Listen for ant sounds mentioned above; listening devices are helpful. Gently tap with a screwdriver, etc. all exposed wood such as floor joists, sill plates, roof rafters, etc. and listen for sound changes; nest cavities give a hollow or dull ring. Check suspicious areas with a knife blade which will readily penetrate infested wood. Be sure to check crawl spaces, basements, and attics. Carpenter Ants have a network of trails they follow throughout a structure and often use the tops of electrical wires and water pipes, so be sure to check where these are. A moisture meter can be helpful in locating areas of higher moisture in which the ants prefer to locate their initial nests. The third step is to determine if the inside colony is a parent or satellite colony. Inspect and search. Detection of a trail directs one to the parent colony. For effective control, it is imperative to locate and eliminate the parent colony. Once the colony or colonies are located, they should be treated directly with an appropriately labeled pesticide. Inside, this may involve drilling wall voids and applying dust and/or drilling wood members and pressure injection. Barrier treatment is effective in preventing entry, with wettable powder and microencapsulated formulations working best. All branches of trees and shrubs in contact with the building must be trimmed back. Be sure to check where electrical and water lines enter the building and caulk any gaps. Sometimes treating the bottom 3-6 feet (1-2m) of tree trunks and/or utility poles is helpful.

Field Ant  

INTRODUCTION
The common name of field ant probably comes from their abundance in outdoor situations. This is the largest genus of ants in American north of Mexico, containing about one-sixth of our entire ant fauna. Some species are commonly called thatching ants because of their habit of constructing a mound or thatch of plant material, often grass. They are found throughout the United States.

RECOGNITION
Workers polymorphic, 1/8-3/8" (3-9 mm) long. Color brown, black, reddish or a combination of these colors. Head with ocelli distinct, posterior border not indented. Antenna 12-segmented, without a club. Thorax lacks spines, profile not evenly rounded on upper side. Pedicel 1-segmented, node usually rounded dorsally. Gaster with anal opening round, surrounded by circlet of hairs. Stinger absent, but will bite and spray formic acid into wound if provided.

SIMILAR GROUPS
(1) Allegheny mound ant (Formica exsectoides) has posterior border of head with a distinct emargination/indentation, node with sharp dorsal edge, and head and thorax red, abdomen and legs blackish brown. (2) Carpenter ants (Camponotus spp.) with profile of thorax evenly rounded. (3) Cornfield ant (Lasius alienus) with ocelli indistinct or absent.

BIOLOGY
Because of the size and diversity of this genus, few generalizations can be made. They exhibit such behavior as slave-making and temporary social parasitism of various kinds, and several different methods of nest construction. Colony founding is by several means including by a single inseminated female. Some species, such as F. rufibarbis Wheeler, have gynecoid workers or workers which can and do lay eggs so they can also function as substitute queens. Colony size varies considerably, for example, colonies of F. rufa McCook have nest of about 20,000-94,000 ants.

HABITS
The habits are diverse within this genus. However, most species causing problems around structures are either one of those species called thatching ants or are associated with masonry walls, concrete sidewalks, etc.

Thatching ant species construct their mound of plant materials, often grass but also twigs, leaves, and/or pine needles. Such nests are often located around small trees, shrubs, or rocks. Other Formica typically construct their nest in the cracks of sidewalks, along foundation walls, at the base of trees, etc. Such ants include the California red-and-black field ant. F. occidua Wheeler, and the brown field ant, F. cinerea Mayr. Members of the genus Formica rarely nest in homes but occasionally enter in search of sweets. Field and thatching ants feed primarily on honeydew from aphids (plantlice), mealy- bugs, scale insects, etc. found on trees and shrubs. However, some such as the silky ant, F. fusca Linnaeus, tend aphids for honeydew but are also general scavengers- predators and are attracted to meats.

CONTROL
A perimeter treatment with a microencapsulated or wettable powder formulation of pyrethroid will discourage structural entrance. If a particular problem develops, follow the ants back to their mound and treat it with an appropriately labeled pesticide. Mound injection using a high-pressure (160 psi) aerosol and heavy-duty 4-way probe is particularly effective, or treatment by digging in granules is very effective.

House Ant  

INTRODUCTION
The pungent, "rotten-coconutlike" odor given off when this ant is crushed gives it is name. It is a native species and is found throughout the United States.

RECOGNITION
Workers monomorphic, about 1/16-1/8" (2.4-3.25 mm) long. Body brown to black. Antenna 12-segmented, without a club. Thorax lacks spines, profile unevenly rounded. Pedicel 1-segemented, with small node/segment hidden/concealed from view from above by base of gaster. Gaster with anal opening slitlike, lacking circlet of hairs. Stinger absent. Workers emit a disagreeable, rotten, coconut-like odor.

SIMILAR GROUPS
91) Ghost ant (Tapinoma melanocephalum) with head and thorax dark but abdomens and legs pale. (2) Argentine (Iridomyrmex humilis), crazy (Paratrechina longicornis), pyramid (Conomyrma insana), and dark field (Formica spp.) ants have node visible, not hidden by gaster; in addition, pyramid ants with thorax with single tooth on upper surface, field and crazy ants with circular anal opening surrounded by circlet of hairs and crazy ants additionally with antennal scape (lst segment) at least twice head length and very long legs in relation to body size. (3) Other small dark ants have 2-segmented pedicel and/or lack rotten coconut odor when crushed.
 

BIOLOGY
Colonies may be composed of several hundred to 100,000 ants. There are usually many queens in a colony. Developmental time (egg to adult) is 34-83 days, varying with temperature during summer months, and up to 6-7 months during the winter. Colonies typically produce 4-5 generations a year. Although they probably mate both inside and outside the nest, the first swarmers appear from May to mid-July. The workers and queens live for several years. Individuals from different colonies are not hostile to one another and workers normally move along trails.

HABITS
Inside, these ants usually construct their nests in wall voids especially around hot water pipes and heaters, in crevices around sinks, cupboards, etc.

These ants prefer sweets but also eat foods with high content and grease such as meats and cheese. Outside, they are often found in the nest of larger ants, in exposed soil, but mostly under objects. Workers feed on insects, seek honeydew and plant secretions, and even feed on seeds. They are extremely fond of honeydew and attend such honeydew- excreting insects as plantlice (aphids), scale insects, mealybugs, etc. They are most likely to enter buildings when their honeydew supply is reduced such as during rainy weather or with leaf fall in the autumn. When workers are alarmed, they run around in an erratic manner with their gasters/abdomens raised up.

CONTROL
Location of the nest(s) is crucial and can often be accomplished by following the trail of foraging workers back from the food source. Use of boric acid dust in the voids of outside ground-floor walls and infested interior walls along with barrier treatment is effective. Baiting is often required.

Domestic House Spider   
 

INTRODUCTION
The common names reflect the fact that this is usually the spider most often encountered indoors. It is a nuisance pest, probably more because of its webs than the spider itself. This spider is found worldwide and is common throughout the United States and Canada

RECOGNITION
Adult female body length about 3/16-5/16" (5-8 mm) including an almost spherical abdomen, male body length about 1/8-3/16" (3.8-4.7 mm) including an elongated abdomen. Color highly variable with carapace (cephalothorax dorsum) yellowish brown; abdomen dirty white with a few dark spots (sometimes with a black triangular spot in center of dorsum) to almost black, with several dark stripes meeting at angle medially(=chevrons/"army sergeant stripes") above tip of abdomen; legs orange in male but yellow in female, with dusky ring at end of each segment (=banded). With 8 eyes, 2 lateral pairs almost touching. Last tarsal segment of 4th pair of legs with row/comb of serrated bristles on venter; all tarsi with 3 claws each.

SIMILAR GROUPS
(1) Other Achaearanea spp. lack chevrons on abdomen. (2) Other spiders lack comb of serrated bristles on last tarsal segment of 4th pair of legs and 8 eyes with 2 lateral pairs almost touching.

BIOLOGY
Female house spiders lay about 250 eggs (range 132-442) in a silken sac which is brownish, oval to flask-shaped, about 1-4-3/8" (6-9 mm) in diameter, and with a tough, papery cover. There may be more than one sac in the web at a time; a female may produce up to 17 sacs, containing over 3,760 eggs, in her lifetime. The sacs are usually located in the center of the web but may be moved to warmer or cooler sites as required. The eggs hatch in about 7-10 days but the 1st instar spiderlings remain in the sac until they molt once. The 2nd instar spiderlings then emerge and balloon. Females molt 7 times and males 6 to 7 times to reach maturity. Adults may live for year or more.

HABITS
The house spider randomly selects its web sites. If a web does not yield prey (food) it is abandoned, another site is selected, and a new web built. Eventually, successful webs are constructed where air currents bring in prey. Survival is low in modern homes with low humidity and few insects, higher in garages, sheds, barns, warehouses, etc. because of more prey and generally higher humidity, and highest outdoors in protected places. Inside structures, house spiders are most likely to be found in upper corners, under furniture, in closets, angles of window frames, basements, garages, and crawl spaces.

In warehouses, they are common in corners near doors that stay open. Outside, they are often around windows and under eaves especially near light sources which attract prey. Because of their web site selection by trial and error, many webs may be constructed in several days. Dust collecting on these webs accentuates their presence. This situation is unacceptable in most households, offices, food processing plants, ect

CONTROL
Follow the standard control procedures for spiders as outlined in the introductory section. Use a vacuum to remove adults, egg sacs, and webs. If a broom is used, adults usually escape unless they are first individually treated with a nonresidual contact pesticide; this can leave marks or dirt/dust on the wall and ceiling surfaces.

Brown Recluse  
 
INTRODUCTION
The brown recluse or fiddleback/violin spider gets its common names from its coloration and reclusive habits, or the dark violin/fiddle-shaped marking on the top of the cephalothorax. Members of the genus loxosceles occur in southern Europe, temperate Africa, and in North, Central, and South America. Brown recluse spiders occur pretty much throughout the United States and of 11 species recognized, 7 are of public health importance. Recognition of the brown recluse species group is sufficient for PCO purposes.

RECOGNITION
Adults usually about 1/-4-1/2'' (6-12 mm) in body length (L. laeta about 1''/25 mm). Color tan to dark brown with a darker fiddle-shaped marking on dorsum or top of cephalotorax whose neck points towards abdomen. Uniquely, with 6 eyes arranged in 3 groups of 2 (diads) in a semicircle. Immatures very similar to adults except for being smaller and slightly paler.

SIMILAR GROUPS
(1) All other spiders lack a darker fiddle-shaped marking on the top of cephalothorax and 6 eyes arranged in 3 groups of 2.

REPRESENTATIVE SPECIES
Because several species are involved and species separation is primarily by differences in male genitalia, species identification should be left to experts. Those of public health importance are:

1. Loxosceles arizonica Gersch & Mulaik which occurs in Arizona.
2. Loxosceles deserta (Gersch) which occurs in the southwest.
3. Loxosceles devia Gertsch and Mulaik which occurs in southern Texas.
4. Loxosceles laeta (Nicolet) which has been found in Massachusetts and occurs in southern California.
5. Loxosceles reclusa Gertsch and Mulaik, the brown recluse, which occurs in the eastern United States.
6. Loxosceles rufescens (Dufour) which occurs sporadically from New York to Illinois and throughout the southeastern states.
7. Loxosceles unicolor Keyserling which occurs in Arizona, New Mexico, and western Texas.

BIOLOGY
This discussion is based on L. reclusa. The female deposits 40-50 eggs in a silken egg sac which is off-white, with the outer covering loosely woven. The sac has been described as either flat beneath and convex above (5/8''/17 mm in diameter and 1/8''3.7 mm high) or as round (1/4''/6 mm in diameter). From 1 to 5 sacs are produced, each containing 31-300 eggs. The eggs hatch in 25-39 days and the spiderlings undergo at least 1 molt within the sac before emerging. The spiderlings typically go through 8 instars, and the development period (egg to adult) averages 336 days (range 266-444). Indoors, males live an average of 543 days, and females live 628 days, but 4-5 years is not uncommon. The female spins an irregular web in undisturbed areas. The web is not used to ensnare prey, but mostly as a retreat for the spider. Both male and female brown recluse spiders can inject venom, and must be considered dangerous to humans. Injection of their venom may produce necrosis or dead tissue, resulting in an ulcerating type of sore. The bite is usually not felt, but it may produce an immediate stinging sensation followed by intense pain or this reaction may be delayed for 6-8 hours. A small blister usually appears and the surrounding bite area becomes swollen. Symptoms include restlessness, fever, and difficulty in sleeping. The killed tissue gradually sloughs away during the next 10-14 days, leaving an open ulcer and possibly exposing the underlying muscles and/or bone. Healing is very slow and usually takes several weeks, resulting in dense scar tissue. In severe cases, plastic surgery may be required. An antitoxin has been developed but it is NOT available.

Call a physician or go to an emergency room immediately if bitten, and take the spider along for identification purposes. It should be noted that not all brown recluse bites result in ulcer formation and that bites of other arthropods may cause similar reactions in people.

HABITS
Outside, brown recluse spiders are typically found around rocks, piles of inner tubes, utility boxes, woodpiles, under bark, etc. These spiders have been found in such places as outside rodent bait stations and infesting cedar shake roofs. Inside the home, they can be found in almost any undisturbed area to which they can gain access. They are most commonly found in boxes, among papers, and in seldom-used clothing and shoes, although they can be found in corners, underneath tables and moldings. Hence, storage areas such as closets, bedrooms, attics, crawl spaces, and basements are the areas of greatest occurrence. They typically run for cover when disturbed. Bites have been reported to occur when putting on seldom-used clothing or shoes, when cleaning out storage areas, or by rolling on the spider while in bed. In commercial buildings, the usual places to find brown recluses spiders include heat tunnels, boiler rooms, attics, basements, storerooms, and garages.

CONTROL
Follow the standard procedures for spiders, but check any cedar shake shingles present. The generous use of glue boards placed in areas where spiders have been seen or along walls can help locate and remove these spiders, especially as they move about in response to a treatment. Control of severe infestations may require 6 months or more.

Mouse  

INTRODUCTION
The house mouse is the most commonly encountered and economically important of the commensal rodents, the Norway and roof/black rats being the other two. House mice are not only a nuisance, damage/destroy materials by gnawing, and eat and contaminate stored food, they are also of human health importance as disease carriers or vectors. It is thought to be of Central Asian origin, but is now of worldwide distribution and found throughout the United States.

RECOGNITION
Adult with head and body length 2.5-3.5" (6.5-9 cm), tail length 2 3/4- 4" (7-10.2 cm), weight about 1/2-1 oz (12-30 g). Fur smooth, color usually dusty gray above and light gray or cream on belly (some mice light brown to dark gray above), but fur color varies considerably from area to area or location to location regardless of living habits. With muzzle pointed, eyes small, incisors ungrooved, ears large with some hair. Feet short and broad. With a uniformly dark, scaly, semi-naked tail. Adult droppings 1/8-1/4" (3-6 mm) long, rod-shaped, lack ridges (American cockroach droppings with ridges), with pointed ends.

SIGNS OF INFESTATIONS
1. Gnaw marks. New gnawing or holes tend to be rough whereas, old gnawings are smooth from wear.
2. Droppings. Fresh droppings are soft and moist whereas, old droppings are dried and hard; house mouse's about 1/8-1/4" (3-6 mm) long, rod shaped, and with pointed ends vs American cockroach about 1/8" (3 mm) long and with ridges.
3. Tracks/footprints. Front foot 4-toed and print is in front of hind print with 5-toes. Fresh tracks are clear and sharp whereas, old tracks are at least partially obscured by dust.
4. Rub marks. These are usually less noticeable and smaller in size than those of rats.
5. Burrows. Indoors they often nest in various materials such as insulation. If active, free to dust and cobwebs. Entrance usually with material packed/compressed, rub marks sometimes visible.
6. Runways. Frequently use the same paths, usually along walls, stacked merchandise, etc., and to interior objects. Active runways free of dust and cobwebs, with fresh droppings. Tracks may or may not be visible.
7. Damaged goods. Mice prefer seeds or cereals.

SIMILAR GROUPS
(1) Adult Norway (Rattus norvegicus) and roof/black (R. rattus) rats with body and head length 7-9.5" (18-25 cm) and weigh 7-18+ oz (200-500+ g). (2) Young Norway and roof/black rats with head and feet disproportionately large for body size. (3) Deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) and white-footed mouse (P. leucopus) very similar in size and weight but with distinct bicolored tail (tawny brown above, white underneath), a distinct line evident where 2 colors meet, seed feeders. (4) Most other native rats and mice with hairy tail, hairs short or long, or if tail almost naked, it is also annulate (appears to be of ringlike segments).

BIOLOGY
The house mouse is a prolific breeder. They reach sexual maturity in 35 days. Pregnancy lasts an average of 19 days (range 18-21). They young are blind and naked except for vibrissae (long whiskers), and are weaned at about 3-4 weeks. The average litter size is 6 (range 5-8), with about 8 litters per year, but averaging 30-35 days. More than 1 litter may be present in the nest at one time. Life expectancy is normally less than 1 year, but mice have been known to live as long as 6 years. Mice have keen senses, except for sight because they cannot see clearly beyond 6" (15 cm) and are color blind. They are excellent climbers and can run up most roughened walls. Mice can swim but prefer not to do so. They can jump 12" (30.5 cm) high and can jump down from about 8 ft (2.5 m) high without injury. Mice can survive and thrive in cold storage facilities at 14F (-10C). They can run horizontally along pipes, ropes, and wires. A mouse requires about 1/10 oz (s.8 g) of dry food and 1/20 oz (1.5 ml) of water (normally obtained from food) each day and produces about 50 droppings each day. Over a 6-month period, a pair of mice will eat about 4 pounds (1.8kg) of food, produce about 18,000 droppings, and void about 3/4 pint/12 oz (355 ml) of urine. The most common way mice transmit disease organisms is by contaminating food with their droppings and/or urine. The most threatening organism spread by mice is Salmonella, a cause of food poisoning, spread via droppings. Other transmittable organisms include tapeworms via droppings, rat-bite fever via bites, infectious jaundice/leptospirosis/Weil's Disease via urine in food or water, a fungus disease (Favus) of the scalp either by direct contact or indirectly via cats, plague and murine typhus via fleas. Rickettsial pox via the mite Liponyssoides sanguineus (Hirst), lymphocytic choriomeningitis via droppings, and possibly poliomyelitis (polio). Another problem is house mouse mite dermatitis which is caused by these mites when they feed on humans.

HABITS
Mice are very social. Related males and females are compatible, but unrelated male mice are typically very aggressive toward one another. Social hierarchies with one male dominating lower-ranking males result in the maintenance of territories, which may include a large number of females as well as lower-ranking males, most of which will be related. All mature mice tend to show aggression towards strangers of either sex that enters their territory, which is marked with urine. Territory size varies but it is usually relatively small. If food and shelter are plentiful, they may not travel more than 4-5 feet (1.2-1.5 m) from their nests. Mice are inquisitive. During the daily territorial patrol, they will explore anything new or changed, and establish new travel routes if needed. Mice are nibblers and eat only small amounts of food at any one time or place. Although mice will eat many kinds of food, seeds are usually preferred. There are 2 main feeding periods, at dusk and just before dawn, with many other "mini" feeding times in between. They will sample new foods but return to the old food unless the new food is preferred. Required moisture is normally obtained from their food but they will take free water when available, especially when feeding on high-protein food. When given a choice, they prefer sweetened liquids over plain water. Their preferred nesting sites are dark, secluded places where there is abundant nesting material nearby and little chance of disturbance. Nesting materials include paper products, cotton, packing materials, wall/attic insulation, fabrics, etc. Mice are nocturnal in habit. They require an opening of greater than ¼" (6 mm) to gain entry.

CONTROL
The key to any mouse control program is pest identification, harborage elimination, and mouse-proofing the building. Control is based on the behavioral habits of mice. Some of the most important things to remember are:

1.Mice defecate wherever they travel but mostly where they feed. Mouse droppings serve to indicate where control efforts should be concentrated. Non-toxic tracking powders can also be used to determine where the greatest mouse activity is occurring.

2. Territories are relatively small and rarely exceed 20ft (6m) in diameter. Traps and bait stations must be placed within this area if control is to be effective. If a trap or bait is unused after 48 hours, move it the mice are elsewhere.

3. Mice are nibblers. Put a little bit of bait in many bait stations to increase exposure and consumption. Change baits until preference is established, then utilize this bait until feeding stops.

4. Mice are inquisitive. Move things around when traps/stations/glue boards are introduced so mice will explore to establish new movement routes. This makes trapping/baiting more successful.

5. Mice like nesting material nearby. Use nesting material on the trigger of snap traps and in the center of glue boards.

6. Water requirements increase with temperature and/or a lower moisture content of food. Use water baits (sweetened with prune juice, pineapple juice, or original cherry flavor Kool-Aid) during hot weather and when food moisture content may be low, e.g., feed and grain elevators, warehouses, etc.

7. Mice are attracted to certain foods. Bait snap traps and/or the center of glue boards with prunes, fresh pineapple, salted peanuts, or whatever they are feeding on at the time.

8. Outdoors, reproduction is more seasonal, hitting its low between October and January. Because of a reduced chance of introductions, concentrated control efforts should be more effective in eliminating the mice during this low period.

Sewer Rat  

INTRODUCTION
The Norway rat is the largest of the commensal rodents and the most common commensal rat in the temperate regions of the world. It not only damages/destroys materials by gnawing, eats and contaminates stored food, but it is also of human health importance as a vector or carrier of diseases. It is thought to be of central Asian origin, but is now of worldwide distribution and found throughout the United States.

RECOGNITION
Adult with combined head and body length 7-9.5" (18-25 cm), tail length 6-8" (15-21 cm), usual weight about 7-18 oz (200-500 g) but up to 20.5 oz (620 g). Fur coarse, shaggy, brown with scattered black hairs, with underside gray to yellowish white. With muzzle blunt, eyes small, ears small (do not reach eyes) and densely covered with short hairs. Heavy bodied. With scaly tail bicolored (darker above), shorter than head and body combined. Adult droppings up to 3/4" (20 mm) long, capsule- shaped, and with blunt ends.

SIGNS OF INFESTATION
1. Gnaw marks. New gnawing or holes tend to be rough whereas, old gnawings are smooth from wear and old holes are often greasy.
2. Droppings. Fresh droppings are soft and moist whereas, old droppings are dried and hard; adult Norway's about 3/4" (18-20 mm) with blunt ends vs. adult roof's about 1/2" (12-13 mm) with pointed ends.
3. Tracks/footprints. Front foot 4-toed and print is in front of usually longer hind print with 5 toes. Fresh tracks are clear and sharp whereas, old tracks are at least partially obscured by dust.
4. Rub marks or dark, greasy markings on vertical surfaces. Fresh marks are soft, greasy, and easily smeared whereas, old marks are with the grease dry and flaky.
5. Burrows. Found in earthen banks, under concrete slabs, and under walls. If active, free of dust and cobwebs. Main opening usually with hard packed soil, rub marks may be visible.
6. Runways. Consistently follow same paths, usually along walls, stacked merchandise, etc. Active runways with greasy appearance, free of dust and cobwebs, with fresh tracks and/or droppings.
7. Damaged goods. Norway rats prefer meat, fish, and cereal (dry dog food a favorite) whereas, roof rats prefer fruits, vegetables, and cereals.

SIMILAR GROUPS
(1) Roof rat (Rattus rattus) with muzzle pointed, eyes large, ears large, almost naked tail uniformly colored and longer than head plus body, droppings spindle-shaped with pointed ends. (2) Hispid cotton rat (Signodon hispidus) with tail about half head-body length combined and less heavy (weight 2 3/4-7 oz/80-198 g), and fur coarse and grizzled, grayish above with mixed buff and black, and whitish below. (3) House mouse (Mus musculus) with muzzle pointed, ears large, tail about as long as head plus body, small (about 1/2-1 oz/14-28 g), shorter (head, body and tail 5.25- 7.5"/6.5-10.2 cm), droppings 1/8-1/4" (3-6 mm) long, rod-shaped with pointed ends. (4) Most native rats and mice have hairy tails, hairs short or long, or if the tail is almost naked, it is also annulate (appears to be of ringlike segments).

BIOLOGY
Norway rats reach sexual maturity in 2-5 months. Pregnancy lasts an average of 23 days (range 21-25). The young are blind and naked at birth. Hair appears in about 7 days and eyes opening in 12-14 days. They are weaned at about 3-4 weeks. The average number of litters is 3-6 per year (range 3-12), each containing an average of 7-8 young (range 6-22), but averaging about 20 weaned/female/year. Adults live an average of 6-12 months, but much longer in captivity. They have rather poor vision and are color blind, but their senses of hearing, smell, touch and taste are keenly developed. Touch is via their vibrissae or long whiskers. They are good runners, climbers, jumpers and swimmers. A Norway rat requires ¾-1 oz (21-28 g) of food and ½-1oz (15-30ml) of water each day, with the water coming from a nonfood source. This results in about 30-180 droppings and ½ oz/3 teaspoons (16cc) or urine produced each day. Historically, the disease most commonly thought of involving rats (roof rat primarily) is plague which is transmitted via fleas leaving an infected rat and attacking man. Fortunately, plague has not been found in rats in the United States for many years. Other transmittable diseases include murine typhus via fleas (also possibly via droppings and urine), infectious jaundice/leptospirosis/Weil's Disease via urine in water or food, rat-bite fever via bites, trichinosis via undercooked pork and food poisoning or Salmonellosis via droppings. Another problem is tropical rat mite dermatitis which is caused by these mites when they feed on humans.

HABITS
Rats are primarily nocturnal in habit and they are cautious. Although they constantly explore their surroundings, they shy away from new objects and changes. Outdoors, Norway rats prefer to nest in burrows in the soil along railroad embankments, stream/river banks, piles of rubbish, under concrete slabs, etc. The burrow will have at least 1 entrance hole and at least 1 bolt-hole or emergency exit which is often hidden under grass, debris, etc. These are social animals and often many burrows will be located within a given area. An opening of greater than ½" (12mm) is required for entry into buildings. Indoors, Norway rats usually nest in basements and the lower portions of buildings in piles of debris or merchandise as long as it is not disturbed. Although Norway rats prefer the ground or lower levels of buildings and sewers, on occasions they may be found in attics, on roofs and in other high places. Although they will eat practically anything, Norway rats prefer meat, fish, and cereal. If the food material eaten proves to be disagreeable, they are quick to develop food/bait shyness.

Once they find an acceptable/preferred food, rats tend to eat their fill at one sitting/place and will return time after time. They almost always require a nonfood or separate source of water. Norway rats will travel about 100-150 ft (30.5-45.7 m) from their harborage for food and/or water. They will gnaw through almost anything to obtain food and/or water, even plastic or lead pipes. Once established, Norway rats tend to follow the same route or pathway between their harborage and food and/or water sources. As often as possible, they follow vertical surfaces which their vibrissae or long whickers can contact. Runways along vertical surfaces will usually include dark rub marks on the vertical surfaces where their oily fur makes contact. Their runway will be free of debris, and outdoors, the grass will be worn away to the bare soil.

CONTROL  
The key to any rat control program is pest identification, sanitation, harborage elimination, and rat-proofing the building. Control is based on the behavioral habits of the Norway rat. Some of the most important things to remember are:

1. Rats defecate somewhat indiscriminately within their territories but mostly where they feed. Rat droppings serve as an indication of their presence and where control efforts should be concentrated. Nontoxic tracking powders can also be used to determine where they are most numerous.

2. Rats will travel 100-150 ft (30.5-45.7 m) for food and/or water along established runways and usually with their vibrissae in contact with vertical surfaces. Look for rub marks and clean runways. Place traps or bait stations along runways and against vertical surfaces.

3. Rats are gluttons. Place sufficient bait in each bait station for at least 1 meal (stop feed baits), 2 meals (acute/single-feed baits), or more (chronic/multi-feed baits). Once a preferred bait is found, they utilize this bait until feeding stops.

4. Rats are cautious. Minimal disturbance is desirable. Pretrapping with unset snap traps or prebaiting with nontoxic bait may be necessary.

5. Norway rats prefer meat, fish and cereals. Use such high-protein baits and bait the center of glue boards and snap traps with such foodstuffs.

6. Rats usually have a water source other than their food if their food has a low moisture content. Liquid baits are particularly effective when their normal water source can be reduced or eliminated.

7. Outdoors, Norway rats usually live in ground burrows. Outdoors, gassing (fumigating) rat burrows is extremely effective. Follow label directions and do not gas burrows within 15ft (4.6m) of, or burrows which may run under or open into an occupied structure.

Sewer Fly  

INTRODUCTION
These flies get the common name of moth fly from their fuzzy appearance, their bodies and wings being very hairy. The drain/filter/sewage fly common names are from places or situations which represent typical breeding and developmental sites. Although usually thought of as nuisance pests, there have been cases where inhalation of their body parts caused bronchial asthma. Moth flies are found throughout the United States and most of the world.

RECOGNITION
Adults about 1/16-1/4" (1.55 mm) long, delicate and fuzzy. Color pale yellowish to brownish gray to blackish, depending on the species. Antennae 12- to 16- segmented, each segment bulbous and with a whorl of long setae (hairs). Wings broadly oval, pointed apically, veins and margins hairy, and held rooflike over body at rest. Non-biting. In addition, ocelli absent and cross veins restricted to basal 3rd of wing. Mature larvae about 1/8-3/8" (4-10 mm) long, eyeless and legless. Subcylindrical in form, with head narrower than body and terminal rear (apical) segment narrow, forming a short hardened (sclerotized) breathing tube. All or some body segments with narrow, transverse, sclerotized, strap-like bands (usually 2 or 3) on their dorsum. Color pale with head, dorsal bands, and apical breathing tube dark.

SIMILAR GROUPS
(1) Sand flies (Psychodidae, subfamily Phlebotominae) with 2nd longitudinal vein of wings branching distant from wing base (moth flies with it branching near wing base), legs long and slender, wings held together above body at rest, females bite. (2) Mosquitoes (Culicidae) with wings long and narrow, veins and wing margin covered with scales. (3) Other flies lack dense hair on body and on wing veins and margin.

REPRESENTATIVE SPECIES
1. Pacific drain fly. Psychoda phalenoides (Linnaeus). Adult about 1/8" (2-2.3 mm) long; wings brownish gray; antenna 15-segmented, with segments 13 or 14 each half the size of 12th segment; found along the Pacific Coast from southern California to Alaska.
2. Psychoda alternata Say. Adult about 1/16" (2mm) long; body light tan, wings lighter but faintly mottled with black and white, wings with brown spots at ends/tips of veins; antenna 15-segmented but appearing 14-segmented (segments 13 and 14 fused), segment 15 small, buttonlike; ranges from Florida to Massachusetts and westward to Washington and California.
3. Psycholda satchelli Quate is pale yellowish and antenna 14-segmented with segments 13 and 14 subequal in size; ranges from Georgia to Quebec and westward to Alaska and California.
4. Psychoda cinerea Banks is pale yellowish with 16-segmented antenna having terminal 3 segments equal in size; eastern United States.
5. Telmatoscopus albipunctatus (Williston) is brown or blackish, white hairs on thorax, and white spots at tips/ends of wing veins; antenna 14-segmented; found throughout the United States.

BIOLOGY
Adult females of Psychoda alternata lay their 30-100 eggs in irregular masses on the surface of the gelatinous film which covers filter stones of sewage treatment plants or which lines the water-free portions of drain pipes. Both the larvae and pupae live in this gelatinous film with their breathing tube (s) projecting through the film.

The larvae feed on the algae, bacteria, fungi, microscopic animals, and sludge of this film. At 70F (21C) eggs hatch in 32-48 hours, the larval stage lasts 8-24 days, and the pupal stage lasts 20-40 hours. The developmental time (egg to adult) is 7-28 days, depending on conditions. Adults typically live about 2 weeks. Although they may breed in sewage, apparently they do not transmit human diseases. However, in South Africa, there have been cases of bronchial asthma where the inhalant allergen consisted of dust composed of dead moth fly body parts.

HABITS
Because of their small size, moth flies are able to penetrate ordinary screens. Moth flies are weak fliers, so indoors they are usually seen crawling on walls or other surfaces. When they do fly, it is only for short distances of a few feet and their flight is in characteristic short, jerky lines. During the day, they typically rest on vertical surfaces near drain openings indoors and in shaded areas outside. Their greatest activity is in the evening when they can be seen flying or hovering above drain openings indoors or sewage filter beds, etc. outside. Typically, only a few adults are seen at a time in structures because the adult flies live only about 2 weeks but are continually being replaced with newly emerging flies as they die. However, large numbers of adults usually means that an outside source such as a sewage treatment plant is involved. Even though they are weak flies, they can be carried distances of 300 feet (91 m) or more by the wind.

CONTROL
After proper identification, a thorough inspection is required to find the breeding site. Places to check include: slimy drains, sewer leaks or backup, dirty garbage cans, saucers under potted plants, bird baths or feeders, clogged roof gutters, clogged storm drains, air conditioners, cooling towers, moist compost, rain barrels, and septic tanks. If large numbers of flies are seen, be sure to check for nearby sewage treatment plants, especially upwind from the structure. In relatively new structures, drains can often be cleaned out with over-the-counter drain cleaners followed by very hot water. If this is not successful, mechanical cleaning of the drain with a stiff brush is required to remove the gelatinous film lining, and this should be followed with a caustic drain cleaner. Pyrethrin or pyrethroid aerosols can be used to kill large numbers of adult flies, but only the elimination of the breeding site(s) will provide long-term control. When large populations of these flies are breeding in sewage filter beds, control usually consists of the periodic flooding for a minimum of 24 hours to kill larvae and pupae; eggs are unaffected. In addition, weed control should be practiced to remove adult roosting sites and any adjacent vertical surfaces should be treated with an appropriately labeled pesticide. Microencapsulated and wettable powder formulations are particularly effective.

Fungus Gnat  

INTRODUCTION
The common name of gnat is applied to certain small flies, and that of fungus comes from their common occurrence on fungi which serve as a major food source for their larvae; darkwinged describes the smoke-colored wings commonly found within the Sciaridae. These flies are nuisance pests in and around structures, but a few species are agricultural pests. For the Sciaridae, about 137 species, and for the Mycetophilidae, about 714 species, are found in the United States and Canada.

RECOGNITION
(Adults about 1/32-7/16” (1-11 mm for Sciaridae; 2.2-13-3 mm for Mycetophilidae) long; slender to moderately robust, long-legged, somewhat mosquitolike. Color usually black, brown, or yellowish, sometimes brightly colored (Mycetophilidae); wings usually smoke-colored (Sciaridae) or sometimes patterned with darker areas (Mycetophilidae). Head with eyes separated (Mycetophilidae) or touching (Sciaridae) just above antennal bases; ocelli (simple eyes) present. Antenna usually with 16 segments (range 11-17). Wings with front margin (C) thickened to near wing tip; Sciaridae with only 2 branched/forked veins, media (M) usually appearing unattached basally and forking beyond middle of wing and cubitus (Cu) forking in basal 1/4th of wing; Mycetophilidae with radial sector (Rs) simple/unbranched or 2-branched (if 2-branched, fork is beyond r-m crossvein or r-m is obliterated by fusion of Rs and M). Legs with coxae elongated, tibiae with 1 or 2 apical spurs, pulvilli (pads beneath tarsal claws) absent or minute (Mycetophilidae) or narrow to broad but much shorter than claws (Sciaridae).

Mature larvae usually slightly longer than respective adults; sciarid larva with shiny black head and a 12-segmented essentially featureless white translucent body, terminal abdominal segment with a ventral/bottom lobe which acts as a proleg; mycetophilid larva usually cylindrical and slender, with a well-developed head, and 11 or 12 segments, most segments often with ventral creeping welts (roughened areas).

SIMILAR GROUPS
(1) Humpbacked flies (Phoridae) with humpbacked appearance in side view, wing with strong, heavily pigmented veins along front, remaining 3-4 veins weak, oblique, and unbranched, and hind femur flattened.
(2) Minute black scavenger flies (Scatopsidae) have wing with radial sector (Rs) not forked, veins along front strong, heavily pigmented, remaining veins weak, antenna 7-12 segmented, short.
(3) Gall gnats (Cecidomyiidae) with long 14-16 segmented antenna, wing with costal (C, front edge) vein usually continuous around wing, usually with a break just beyond where R5 meets wing margin, and tibial spurs absent.

BIOLOGY
Very little is known about the biology of the species in these two fly families. For the Sciaridae, there are 4 larval instars and apparently one species (Moehina erema Pitchard) is parthenogenetic (eggs develop without fertilization).

For the Mycetophilidae, females lay their eggs singly on larval food material, and eggs hatch within a few days. Under optimal conditions, they pass through 5 instars in 6-8 days. They usually pupate in the ground, and adults emerge in about 3 days. The larvae of some species, such as Ortelia fultoni (Fisher), are luminescent (glow).

HABITS
Adults are typically found on or near larval food materials. Larvae feed primarily on fungi growing in the soil and moist decaying organic matter. Sciarid larvae mostly feed on decaying plant material, animal excrement, or fungus, but some feed in rotting wood or under bark of fallen trees. Several sciarid species are economic pests in greenhouses and commercial mushroom houses, and the larvae of the potato scab gnat (Pnyxia scabiei (Hopkins)) bore into potatoes grown on low ground. The larvae of some species migrate in snakelike formation over the ground. Mycetophilid larvae mostly feed on fleshly or woody fungi, on or in dead wood, under bark, or in the nests of birds or squirrels. Larvae of some species spin webs and capture and eat small arthropods.

Inside, fungus gnat infestations are almost always associated with the soil of overwatered potted plants and atriums. Secondarily, consider signs of water leaks or moisture problems, such as water stains, peeling paint, swelling of walls or wall coverings, to indicate where fungi may be growing which can support larval development. Consider flat roofs which are particularly prone to water leaks. Also, the feces in pet bird cages can be the source if the feces are not removed in a timely manner.

Outside, mulched areas and the soil associated with them is usually the source, especially if new mulch is added annually without removing the old first and/or if sprinkler systems are present. Other sources include accumulations of dead leaves, old firewood piles, compost piles, etc.

Adults are usually found in moist areas where larval food is present. During the day, adults of many species congregate in dark moist places. Some species are most active at dusk and less active at dawn. Adults of most species are attracted to light.

CONTROL
Follow the basic 5 steps of identification, inspection, sanitation, mechanical control/exclusion, and insecticide application if required. The key is finding and eliminating all of the breeding sources, so don’t stop until all potential sources have been inspected. In this case look for moist/damp areas which will support fungal growth. Inside, first check the soil of potted plants and atriums and then move on to the other areas mentioned above. If adults are being seen primarily at windows near outside doors, check for the same adults in the immediate area outside; remember adults are attracted to lights. In offices and health-care facilities, it may be necessary to have all live plants replaced with artificial ones. Occasionally, infestations can develop in wall voids of new structures when damp construction materials are used, trapping enough moisture for fungal growth. Remove the wall plates and put a plastic bag that has been perforated several times with a fine sewing needle over the opening; the flies will follow the air flow and come to the light.

The key to solving the problem once the source(s) have been found is to either remove or dry out the moist material so that it can no longer support fungal growth. Sometimes turning over the top 2-3” (51-76 mm) of soil and/or adding fans to blow over the moist surface will speed the drying process.

The senior author resolved a large darkwinged fungus gnat problem in the lab section of a pharmaceutical plant by tracing the infestation to the flat roof. A new membrane roof had been installed over the previous leaking roof without first drying out or removing the old roofing materials. Adults could gain access to the old moist roofing materials via an improperly sealed front edge and unscreened vent pipes which had been added (going to the old roof through the new roof) in an attempt to let the moisture escape from the old roofing materials. Temporary relief was accomplished by putting portable electrocutor ILTs in the false ceiling to harvest adults until the new roof could be removed, the old roofing materials replaced, and the new roof reinstalled.

Insect light traps (ILTs) work well in reducing the numbers of adults indoors. Once the source(s) have been eliminated, a non-residual ULV/space treatment can be used to quickly kill the remaining adults if necessary.
 

Phorid/Humpbacked/Scuttle Fly  

INTRODUCTION
The common name of humpbacked fly comes from their humpbacked profile when viewed from the side which is due to the small head and prominent pronotum, while that of scuttle fly refers to their habit of running about in an active erratic manner. Phorids are mainly nuisance pests but there are cases of larval infestation of wounds, intestines, and eyes of humans. Worldwide there are over 2,500 species known, while about 226 are currently recognized in the United States and Canada.

RECOGNITION
Adults about 1/64-1/4" (0.5-5.5 mm) long; with a characteristic humpbacked appearance in lateral view. Color black, brown, or yellowish. Antenna very short, basal 2 segments very small, 3rd segment globular and bearing a long arista (bristle), arista rarely plumose/feathery (1 species). Wings with strong, heavily pigmented veins in costal (front) area, remaining veins (usually 3 or 4) weak, oblique, and without crossveins. Hind femur flattened. Mature larvae up to 3/8" (10 mm); form, spindle-shaped with inconspicuous projections on posterior/rear segments to shorter, broader, and somewhat flattened with conspicuous projections dorsally, laterally, and particularly on the rear/terminal segment; color whitish, yellowish white, or grayish.

SIMILAR GROUPS
(1) Small fruit flies (Drosophila spp.) with eyes usually red, antenna with arista plumose, wing with 2 breaks in costal/front vein and remaining veins strong, not oblique, and with crossveins. (2) Darkwinged fungus gnats (Sciaridae) with one of weaker rear veins forked/branching in outer half of wing, eyes meet bases of antennae. (3) Fungus gnats (Mycetophilidae) with coxae elongated, wing with thickened portion of costal/front vein ending near wing tip and several rear veins forked/branching. (4) Black files (Simulidae) with wing broad at base and narrowing towards tip, usually gray.

BIOLOGY
Females lay their eggs either onto/into or at least close to the larval food, with 1-100 being laid at one time and up to 749 in her lifetime. There are 3 larval instars. The 3rd instar larva crawls to a drier area to pupate. The developmental time (egg to adult) for 2 common phorid flies is as follows:

1. Dohmiphora comata (Bigot). Found throughout the United States and Canada. Egg batch size is 30-40 eggs. AT 74F/23C, females lay 9-12 eggs/day for a lifetime average of 368 (range 77-535). Developmental time in days at 72-75F/22-24C, egg 1, larvae 5-8, pupa 13-15, for a total of 21-28 days.
2. Megaselia scalaris (Loew). Found Indiana to Massachusetts, south to Texas and Florida, and in California. Egg batch size averages about 32 eggs at 74F/23C, and 39 eggs at 81F/27C, with a lifetime total average of 391 eggs (range 42-749) at 81F/27C. Developmental time in days at 72F/22C, egg 1.3+, larvae 5.5+, pupa 15.1+, for a total of 22+ days; at 85F/29C, egg 0.7+, larvae 3.5+, pupa 6.0+, for a total of 11.1+ days.

HABITS
Adults can often be found at flowers or on larval food materials which consist of moist decaying organic matter. Because they frequent such unsanitary places, they may transport various disease-causing organisms to food materials. Several species breed in human corpses and are commonly referred to as coffin flies when they become problems in morgues, mortuaries, and mausoleums. Phorid flies are of great concern in health-care facilities because of their unsanitary habits, and because larvae have been found in the open wounds of patients. Larvae breed in a wide variety of moist decaying organic matter which includes dung, vertebrate and invertebrate carrion, fungi, and decaying plant material. Some are parasitic on a wide variety of invertebrates including many insects and other arthropods. In structures, breeding materials can include the moist organic film lining drain pipes, the moist residue in the bottom of trash receptacles, the moist material found in the cracks of and under kitchen equipment, in elevator pits, in garbage disposals, in rotting vegetables and meats, dirty moist mop heads, faulty septic systems, etc.

In offices, overwatered potted plants are often the source. In health-care facilities and mausoleums, fresh-cut flowers in vases are frequently the source. In homes, pet stores, and zoos, phorid flies can breed in the moist soiled bedding materials and excrement found in the bottom of the pet-animal cages. Unusual places include a tin of boot polish, a pot of glue paint, and a bucket of animal-based glue. A particularly difficult breeding source to locate and correct is when sewage pipes leak or break under concrete slabs and the flies breed in the released moist organic matter and saturated soil, and then enter the structure through cracks/openings in the slab. Phorids in mausoleums present a unique challenge because the breeding sources are typically the corpses which are legally protected, the hidden internal drainage system which transports and/or harbors the body fluids which drain from the corpses and coffins, and the many cut flowers brought in by friends and relatives. With corpses buried in the ground, phorids appear about one year after the time of burial.

CONTROL
Follow the basic 5 steps of identification, inspection, sanitation, mechanical control/exclusions, and insecticide application if required. The key is finding and eliminating all of the breeding sources; don't stop until all potential sources have been inspected. Insect light traps (lLTs) are effective in harvesting adult flies and can be of particular value in mausoleums or as a temporary measure until the breeding source can be located and removed in commercial accounts. It should be noted that several commonly suggested control methods do NOT work. Among these are pouring bleach and/or boiling water down infested drains because it does not kill the larvae breeding in the film lining the pipe; the film must be removed either mechanically or with special drain cleaners. For leaking or broken sewage pipes under slabs, drilling the slab and injecting pesticide into the soil does not work. The slab must be opened, the pipe repaired, and all the contaminated soil must be removed and replaced. Residual pesticides are rarely if ever required for the control of phorid flies, but after breeding sources have been eliminated, an ULV application of non-residual pesticide can be used to kill the adults present.

Fruit-Vinegar Fly  

INTRODUCTION
The common name of small fruit fly comes from their small size and fondness for fruits as egg laying and development sites. The name of vinegar fly comes from the fact they develop in the briny or vinegarlike liquids at the top of imperfectly sealed canned fruits and vegetables. Note that only flies of the family Tephritidae can properly be called fruit flies. These are nuisance pests but may act as disease vectors. The best known of these flies is D. melanogaster Meigen which has been used extensively in the study of heredity. They are worldwide in distribution and are found throughout the United States.

RECOGNITION
(Drosophila spp.) Adults about 1/8” (3-4 mm) long, including the wings. Color dull, tan to brownish yellow or brownish black; eyes usually bright red. Antenna with feathery bristle (arista). Wing with coastal vein (thickened front margin) broken twice, near end of humeral cross vein (short vein perpendicular to costa near wing base) and near end of vein R1 (1st vein behind costa). First hind tarsal segment long and slender, much longer than 2nd segment. Drosophila melanogaster adults about 1/8” (3 mm) long, tan with abdomen blackish above and grayish below, and bright red eyes.

Mature D. melanogaster larvae are about ¼-3/8” (7-8 mm) long, eyeless, legless, and tapering towards head form large rounded rear segment, head represented by 2 dark hooks. Color near white except mouth hooks black and tips of posterior terminal abdominal spiracles (breathing pores) yellowish. Posterior spiracles at end of short stalks/fleshy tubes which are in contact or joined at their bases. Other species may have posterior spiracle stalks dark and/or have whorls of setae (hairs) at their ends, and/or have the bottom side of abdomen with darkened cross bands (setulae).

SIMILAR GROUPS
(1) Small dung flies (Sphaeroceridae) with 1st hind tarsal segment broad and shorter than 2nd segment, wing with costal vein (thickened front margin) broken 3 times (additionally before humeral cross vein).
(2) Humpbacked flies (Phoridae) weaker (less distinct) unbranched oblique veins, hind femora flattened.
(3) Moth/drain/sewage flies (Psychodidae) have body and wing veins densely covered with hairs.
(4) Fungus gnats (Mycetophilidae) and darkwinged fungus gnats (Sciaridae) are slender, long-legged, mosquitolike, with elongated coxae, wing costa (front margin) unbroken, antenna lacks an arista/bristle.
(5) Other small flies either lack antenna with a feathery bristle and/or wing with a twice broken costal vein.

BIOLOGY
Adult females lay their eggs (average about 500) near the surface of fermenting fruits and vegetables or near the cover crack of imperfectly sealed containers of such materials. The eggs hatch in about 30 hours. The larvae develop in the briny or vinegarlike liquids of the fermenting materials where they feed near the surface and primarily on the yeast, for about 5-6 days. Prior to pupation, the larvae crawl to drier areas of the food or elsewhere. The brow, seedlike sheath containing the pupa (the puparium) is formed from the last larval skin/exoskeleton. The newly emerged adults mate in about 2 days. The life cycle (adult to adult) may be completed in 8-10 days at 85° (29° C). Their reproductive potential is enormous.

HABITS
Small fruit flies are attracted primarily to fresh fruits and vegetables and those fermenting because of yeast. Materials lose their attractiveness when they begin to decay because of bacteria and fungi. Materials commonly infested include bananas, grapes, peaches, pineapples, tomatoes, mustard pickles, potatoes, etc. and fermenting liquids such as beer, cider, vinegar, and wine; some species are attracted to human and animal excrement. The larvae develop primarily in liquids and near the surface but seek drier areas for pupation. Newly emerged adults are attracted to lights. Because of their short life cycle of 8-10 days, they can exploit many temporarily available developmental sites such as sour mop and broom heads, fruit under a table or cabinet, fruit left out in a bowl, etc. Dishwasher and mop water full of food particles can accumulate on surfaces and/or in crevices and ferment, providing ideal fly breeding conditions.

Adults tend to hover in small circles. Because of their small size, many species area able to penetrate ordinary screens.

CONTROL
The key to small fruit fly control is sanitation. Elimination of larval food and developmental sites is mandatory. The presence of adult flies usually means that larvae are developing in some nearby fermenting material. If the flies are coming from outdoors, reducing the screen mesh size can be helpful because most species can penetrate ordinary screens. The number of adults can be reduced through the use of insect eletrocuters (light traps), and/or better, the use of baited jar traps with special tops which allow access but discourage escape. Adults can be easily killed with an temporary, lasting only until new adults emerge, unless proper sanitation has been practiced.

Silverfish  
 
INTRODUCTION
All members of the order Thysanura have a teardrop/carrot/fish- shaped body and get their common name of bristletail because of their 3 long, bristlelike or taillike appendages on the posterior/rear end of their body. Silverfish is a common name for species of this group whose bodies are covered with silvery scales. Silverfish are found throughout the United States and the world.

RECOGNITION
Adult body length, not including tails, about 1/2-3/4" (12-19 mm). Wingless with flattened body. Shape teardrop/carrot/fishlike, tapering from head to rear, and generally covered with scales. Color silvery to gun metal, 1 species with dark lines running length of body. Antennae long, threadlike. Posterior end of abdomen with 3 long, bristlelike appendages (2 cerci, 1 median caudal filament). In addition, compound eyes small, widely separated; ocelli absent; coxae lack styli (fingerlike processes); tarsi 3- or 4-segmented; some abdominal segments with a pair of styli; abdominal sternites (underside of segment) lack median setal combs (tufts of hair) or if present, last abdominal tergite (upper side of segment) longer than wide; abdominal tergites with outer dorsal setal combs (tufts of hair) or if lacking, last abdominal tergite longer than wide. Immatures similar to adults in appearance, except for size. Scales appear with 3rd or 4th molt.

SIMILAR GROUPS
(1) Firebrats (order Thysanura) lack silvery sheen, usually with mottled color, abdominal sternites (underside of segment) with median setal concepts combs (tufts of hair) and last abdominal tergite (upper side of segment) wider than long. (2) Jumping bristletails (order Microcoryphia) have large compound eyes which touch each other, middle, hind coxae usually bear styli (fingerlike processes), jump when disturbed. (3) Diplurans (order Diplura) have only 2 appendages (cerci) at end of abdomen, body without scales, lack compound eyes, tarsi 1-segmented. (4) Springtails (order Collembola) lack 3 abdominal appendages/tails but usually have a forked appendage at end of abdomen, lack styli on abdomen, antenna short. (5) Larvae and wingless adults of insects with complete metamorphosis lack 3 bristlelike/taillike appendages on abdomen and styli on abdominal segments.

DAMAGE AND SIGNS OF INFESTATION
Feeding marks are irregular whether they are holes, notches along an edge, or surface etchings. Yellow stains, scales, and/or feces may be seen on infested materials.

REPRESENTATIVE SPECIES
1. Silverfish. Lepisma saccharina Linnaeus. Uniformly silver to steel gray to almost black, with metallic sheen; abdomen without setal combs (tufts of hair) on top but with median setal combs present on abdominal underside; adult body length excluding tails 1/2" (12-13 mm); throughout the United States.

2. Fourlined Silverfish. Ctenolepisma lineata (Fabricius). Scales dark gray with 4 dark lines running length of body; abdomen lacking median setal combs (tufts of hair) beneath but with setal combs above; with 3 pairs of styli (fingerlike processes) on rear of abdomen; adult body length excluding tails about 5/8" (16 mm); eastern United States, southern California, Arizona, Nevada and Oregon. 3. Gray Silverfish. Ctenolepisma longicaudata Escherich. Scales uniformly gray; abdomen lacking median setal combs (tufts of hair) beneath but with setal combs above; with 2 pairs of styli (fingerlike processes) on rear of abdomen; adult body length excluding tails about 3/4" (19 mm); midwest, south, and southern California.

BIOLOGY
The silverfish (L. saccharina) female lays about 1-3 eggs per day, placing them in cracks, under objects, or left exposed. Egg hatch requires 72-90 F (22-32 C) and at least 50-75% relative humidity. Developmental time (egg to adult) is 3-4 months under favorable conditions, but may require up to 2-3 years otherwise. The majority live about 3 years. The most favorable conditions are 72-80 F (22-27 C) and 75-97% RH. The fourlined silverfish (C. lineata) produces the enzyme cellulase in its midgut and can therefore digest cellulose.

The gray silverfish (C. longicaudata) female lays her eggs in batches of 2-20, placing them in cracks. the first instar lacks setae (hairs) and scales, scales appear in the 4th instar, and genitalia in the 14th instar. Sexual maturity is reached in 2-3 years and it may molt 3-5 times per year for another 5 years. Cellulose-digesting bacteria and enzymes are found in its midgut.

HABITS
All these silverfish species hide during the day and prefer to hide or rest in tight cracks or crevices. They can be found almost anywhere in a house including living rooms, bedrooms, bathrooms, attics, basements, and garages. Silverfish infest commercial structures such as offices, stores, and libraries. They tend to roam quite some distance while searching for food, but once they find a satisfactory food source, they remain close to it. Within structures, they can be breeding in a variety of areas, including wall voids, in/under the subflooring, attics, etc.

Silverfish can survive for weeks without food or water. Silverfish (L. saccharina) prefer areas of room temperature (70-85F/21-29C) and high relative humidity (70-100%). They prefer proteins to carbohydrates and are cannibalistic. Silverfish are often introduced into buildings via cardboard cartons of books and papers from an infested location. They are pests of paper, particularly of glazed paper and paper with sizing, wallpaper and wallpaper paste, etc. Silverfish eat proteins such as dried beef and dead or injured of their kind. The fourlined silverfish is not so limited by temperature and moisture. It may be found throughout a building, in the basement, in wall voids, the attic especially if the roof has wooden shingles, and in the garage. Outdoors, it occurs in the mulch of foundation flower and shrubbery beds, and under the bark of Eucalyptus trees in California. The gray silverfish can be found throughout a building from basement to attic, but are not found outdoors. Often heat ducts and ventilators from the basement serve as avenues for widespread infestation. They survive well in both dry and moist conditions. Gray silverfish feed on carbohydrates and proteins of both plant and animal origin. They are fond of wheat flour and beef extract, especially when used as a paste on paper. Gray silverfish prefer papers of high chemical pulp content such as onion skin, cleansing tissue, cellophane (almost pure cellulose), etc., as opposed to newsprint, cardboard, and brown wrapping paper. They readily eat artificial silk, linen, rayon, lisle (long-strand cotton), and cotton, but not wools or true/natural silks, linen is most preferred.

CONTROL
The key to control is identification which directs one to the preferred areas of habitation and food materials as outlined above. Identification is followed by a thorough inspection of preferred habitat areas and where appropriate food materials are present. Once the infestation(s) is found, selection of an appropriate pesticide and formulation is followed by a thorough application. Many infestations are very localized and environmental modification can greatly enhance control - e.g. controlling or eliminating moisture by repairing leaking pipes, sealing up easily accessible cracks and crevices, removal of potential food sources, etc. Dusts, especially in-organics are particularly effective in wall voids, attics, crawl spaces, bathroom and kitchen fixture voids, subflooring voids, etc. Treatment for control of the fourlined silverfish will probably require treatment of foundation mulch beds and possibly the underside of shingles. Bookshelf treatment involves a thorough crack and crevice treatment of the bookcase itself, not treatment of the books. ULV treatment of heavily infested rooms is helpful in reducing numbers as is the use of a vacuum.

Bed Bugs  

COMMON NAME: Bed Bug
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Cimex lectularius Linnaeus
CLASS/ORDER/FAMILY: Insecta/Heteroptera/Cimicidae
METAMORPHOSIS: Simple

INTRODUCTION. This bug probably received its common name of bed bug from its close association with human sleeping beds where it often seeks refuge during daylight, only to come out to feed on the bed’s occupant(s) at night. The bed bug is an ectoparasite of primarily humans but will also attack poultry and other mammals and birds. It was introduced into the United States with the early colonists. It is found throughout the United States and the world.

RECOGNITION. Adults about 3/16” (4-5mm) long; broadly oval and flat. Color brown to reddish brown (after feeding). Head with beak/proboscis 3-segmented, not extending beyond front coxae. Ocelli absent. Antenna 4-segmented, 3rd segment longer than 2nd or 4th. Pronotum with front margin deeply concave to receive head, with side margins greatly expanded forward to beyond eyes, pronotum more than 2.5 times as wide as long at its middle. Bases (coxae) of middle and hind legs widely separated; tarsi 3-segmented. Front wings vestigial, reduced to wing pads; with contiguous (touching) portions shorter than scutellium (triangular plate directly behind pronotum) in length. Body upper surface sparsely covered with short golden hairs (setae), usually shorter than diameter of 2nd antennal segment. Emit an “obnoxiously sweet” odor from scent glands.

SIMILAR GROUPS. (1) Tropical bed bug (Cimex hemipterus) with pronotum less than 2.5 times as wide as long at its middle; southern Florida. (2) Bat bugs (C. adjunctus and C. pilosellus) with upper surface of body covered with long hairs (setae), length 1.5 or more times the diameter of the 2nd antennal segment. (3) Swallow bug (Oeciacus vicarious) with 3rd and 4th antennal segments equal in length. (4) Poultry bug (Haematosiphon inodorus) with beak/proboscis extending back to hind coxae. (5) Swift bug (Cimexopsis nyctalis) with bases (coxae) of middle and hind legs nearly touching and body bare, lacking hairs (6) Flat bugs (family Aradidae) with narrow wings, abdomen extending beyond them, beak/proboscis 4-segmented, and tarsi 2-segmented.

BIOLOGY. Female bed bugs lay 1-5 eggs per day with the 1/32” (1mm) long, white eggs being deposited individually in cracks or on rough surfaces and secured with a transparent cement for an average total of 200 eggs; maximum eggs per day is 12, with 541 for a lifetime. There are 5 nymphal instars with a blood meal required for each molt. About 3-10 minutes are required for each blood meal, during which saliva containing an anticoagulant is injected. Developmental time (egg to adult) takes 21 days at 86 degrees F/30 degrees C occur. The threshold for egg hatching, nymphal development, and adult activity is 55-59 degrees F. Below 61 degrees adults  enter semihibernation and the thermal death point is 111-113 degrees. Without a blood meal, once-fed nymphs can survive an average of 51 days (range 28-73_ at 81 degrees and 70-75% RH. Being poorly fed can greatly prolong the nymphal period (35-48 days to 158 days in one study). With normal feeding and reproductive cycles, individuals can live up to 316 days.

Humans are the preferred host of bed bugs but in their absence bed bugs will feed on poultry, canaries, English sparrows, mice, rats, guinea pigs, and bats.

Although the bite of bed bugs is painless, most people (80%) develop an allergic reaction to the saliva injected by the bug as it feeds. A swelling usually results from feeding but there is no red spot such as is characteristic with flea bites. Swelling may be severe and extend beyond the immediate bite area in highly sensitive individuals.

Bed bugs have been found to be infected with some 25 different disease organisms. Survival time within the bed bug as found to be especially long (147-285 days) for organisms of plague, relapsing fever, tularermia, and Q fevor. However, although bed bugs have been suspect in the transmission of many diseases or disease organisms in humans, in most cases conclusive evidence is lacking.

HABITS. Bed bugs harbor in cracks and crevices during the day and come out to feed at night. Typically they can be found around mattress buttons and heading, in boxsprings or their coverings, and in any crevice of a wooden bed frame, such as where members join. Other places to check are wall hangings such as picture frames, night stands, stuffed furniture, baseboards, floorboard cracks, behind loose wallpaper, light switches, door and window frames, conduits, etc. In heavy infestations, bed bugs may be found in wall voids, attics, and other enclosed places. They will crawl considerable distances to obtain an blood meal.

They can be introduced into a structure via used furniture or in the belongings of someone who has been living in a bed bug infested situation. Adults can survive for up to 6-7 months if they are well fed and they can feed on other animals if humans are not present. When the temperature falls below 61 degrees, adults enter semi hibernation and can survive for months.

Bed bug infestations have been found in transportation vehicles such as boats, trains, airplanes, and buses as well as in movie theaters where they typically harborage in seats and associated frames.

Besides the characteristic obnoxiously sweet odor, the other primary clues to an infestation will be the presence of bed bugs and/or small red to reddish brown fecal spots here and there on surfaces.

CONTROL. A thorough inspection is indispensable. Treat any bed bug found with an appropriately labeled pesticide. Great care should be taken when treating mattresses, box springs, and upholstery to keep pesticide exposure to the customer to a minimum; allow for thorough drying before reuse. Infant’s and infirmed person’s bedding and bed frames should not be treated. They should be replaced with uninfested items.

In homes, most bed bugs infestations can be controlled with a single application to mattresses, bed frames, wall crevices, and baseboards. In apartment buildings and hotels, it’s advisable to also inspect units to either side and above and below the infested unit, and treat as required.
 

German Roach  

INTRODUCTION
The German cockroach is by far the most important and usually the most common of the cockroaches. In addition to being a nuisance, it has been implicated in outbreaks of illness, the transmission of a variety of pathogenic organisms including at least one parasitic protozoan, and allergic reactions in many people. This species has worldwide distribution.

RECOGNITION
Adults about ½ - 5/8 " (13-16 mm) long. Color light brown to tan except for 2 dark, almost parallel longitudinal stripes/bars/streaks on pronotal shield. Female darker than male, her abdomen broader. Rarely glide or "fly." Nymphal instars 1-2 with thorax dark brown to black but having pale lateral margins, meso- and metathorax pale/white centrally but with a continuous dark stripe near each margin; thorax and abdomen light brown ventrally. Later instars (3rd on) with 2 dark longitudinal stripes on pronotum continuous with dark abdomen, and abdominal segments usually with central areas pale on dorsum. Ootheca or egg capsule yellowish brown but usually two-toned, paler and attached to female; about ¼-3/8" (6-9mm) long, with length more than twice width; subdivisional furrows extending entire width; slightly bowed or arched; and with about 15-20 (range 9-25) eggs on each side.

SIMILAR GROUPS
(Adults only) (1) Asian cockroach (Blattella asahinal) with almost identical color pattern, attracted to lights, flies readily, breeds outdoors in leaf litter, presently known only from Florida, identification should be confirmed by an expert. (2) Brownbanded cockroach (Supelia longipalpa) and Pennsylvania wood cockroach (Parcoblatta pennsylvanica) lack 2 dark longitudinal stripes on pronotal shield. (3) Field cockroach (B. vega) with a median dark line between eyes on front of head. (4) Other cockroaches are either smaller or larger, lack characteristic pronotal stripes, and/or are not associated with structures.

BIOLOGY
The female carries her ootheca until it is within 1-2 days of hatching, and then deposits it in a sheltered area/site. On the average, the female will produce about 5 oothecae (range 4-8), averaging 30-40 eggs (range 18-50) each. Development time (egg to adult) usually varies from 54-215 days, averaging about 103 days; under lab conditions of 80 degrees F/27 degrees C and 40% relative humidity, usually only 50-60 days are required. This means usually 3-4 generations per year, but up to 6. Adults live about 100-200 days (range 1-303). Establised/mature German cockroach populations are typically composed of at least 75% nymphs.

HABITS
German cockroaches are found throughout structures but show a preference form warm (70 degreeF/21 degree C) and humid places. They are usually found in kitchens and secondarily in bathrooms, but infestations often occur in rooms where people eat and drink while watching television such as the den, bedroom, etc. Any crack or crevice located near a source of food and/or water is prime harborage, and they spend about 75% of their time in such harborages. First instar nymphs require a crack of about 1/32" (1 mm) whereas, adults require a crack of about 3/16" (5mm) in width. These cockroaches are most commonly introduced into buildings via paper products or paper packaging such as grocery bags, cardboard boxes, drink cartons, and via secondhand appliances such as refrigerators, televisions, VCR's, microwaves, etc. They have been observed to migrate from building to building on warm evenings, but this rarely occurs. Although uncommon, they can survive outdoors during the warm months. They feed on almost anything with nutritive value including all kinds of food, and such things as soap, glue, and toothpaste. Activity periods vary with life stage, age, and physiological state. For instance, reproducing females are quite active whereas, gravid (with ootheca) females are relatively inactive starting about the 5th day after mating and go only to food and water when necessary. Males spend most of their time in harborage, even at night. All nymphs become immobile and stay in harborage during the last 3 days of each instar while they prepare to molt. Hence, about 1/3 of the time the cockroach nymphs will no0t be found or found exposed during an inspection.

CONTROL
Follow the standard control procedures but more frequent service may be required because of their rapid reproductive rate. At least 95% of the population must be eliminated on the initial or clean-out service, or the typical maintenance program will usually fail. Baits are particularly effective, but correct placement along junctions and/or in cracks and crevices in or near harborages is essential. Incorporating IGRs (insect growth regulators) into the service helps with long-term control. Be sure to follow label directions.

American Roach  

INTRODUCTION
The American cockroach is also called a "waterbug", the "Bombay canary", and the "Palmettobug". Despite its name, the American cockroach is not native to North America but was most probably introduced via ships from Africa. It is worldwide in distribution.

RECOGNITION
Adults about 1 3/8-2 1/8" (34-53 mm) long. Color reddish brown except for a submarginal pale brown to yellowish band around edge of pronotal shield. Last segment of cercus at least 2 times longer than wide. Both sexes fully winged with wings of male extending beyond tip of abdomen whereas, female's do not; poor to moderately good fliers.

Nymphal early instars uniformly grayish brown dorsally, paler ventrally, shiny; cerci slender, distinctly tapered from base with length about 5 times width. Later instars reddish brown with lateral and posterior margins of thorax and lateral areas (sides) of abdominal segments somewhat darker; cerci slender, distinctly tapered with length about 5 times greatest width, widest segments 2.5 times as wide as long. Antennae uniformly brown.

Oothedca or egg capsule dark reddish to blackish brown; about 3/8" (8mm) long, with length about 1.5 times width; subdivisional furrows not extending to midwidth; weak terminal point; and usually with 8 eggs on each side.

SIMILAR GROUPS
(Adults only). (1) Brown cockroach (Periplaneta brunnea) with last segment of circus short and triangular, length less than twice width. (2) Australian cockroach (P. autralasiae) has front wings with outside margin at base pale yellow. (3) Smokybrown cockroach (P. fuliginosa) with pronotal shield uniformly dark. (4) Other cockroaches are either much smaller or larger, lack characteristic pale markings, and/or are not associated with structures.

BIOLOGY
The female deposits her ootheca within a few hours or up to 4 days after it is formed. It is dropped or glued with a mouth secretion to a suitable surface, usually in a crack or crevice of high relative humidity near a food source. On the average, the female will produce about 9-10 (range 6-14; maximum 90) oothecae with each containing 14-16 eggs.

Developmental time (egg to adult) is greatly influenced by temperature, varying from 168-786+ days but averaging about 600 days under ordinary room conditions. During this time, they molt 10-13 times. Adult females live about 440 days (rang 102-588; maximum 913) at ordinary room conditions, but at 84°F/29°C, adult females live about 225 days (range 90-706) whereas, adult males live about 200 days (rang 90-362).

HABITS
Although American cockroaches are found in residences, they are much more common in larger commercial buildings such as restaurants, bakeries, grocery stores, food processing plants, hospitals, etc., where they usually infest food-storage and food-preparation areas, basements, and steam tunnels. During summer months, they can be found outdoors in yards and alleys. In the United States this is the most common species found in city sewer systems.

They can enter structures by being brought in, coming up from the sewer system via drains, or occasional mass migration from other structures, dumps, etc., during warm weather. Although they feed on many kinds of food, they show a particular fondness for fermenting food.

CONTROL
Follow standard control procedures but do not forget to check the drains. For sewers, power dusting with silica gel is particularly effective.

Oriental Roach  

INTRODUCTION
Contrary to its common name, the oriental cockroach is thought to be of north African origin. It is also commonly called a "black beetle" or "waterbug" or "shad roach." This species has worldwide distribution.

RECOGNITION
Adult males about 1" (25 mm) long whereas, females bout 1 ¼" (32 mm) long. Color usually shiny black but may vary to dark reddish brown. Male's wings cover about 75% of abdomen, leaving 3 to 5 abdominal segments exposed. Female with much reduced wings which resemble nymphal wing pads but have veins. Adults do not fly.

Nymphal early instars shiny reddish brown, cerci rounded laterally and broadly tapering to tip, widest near center. Later instars dark reddish brown to black, cerci rounded laterally and broadly tapering to tip, widest near center with middle segments about 3 times as wide as long, and length about 3 times greatest width.

Ootheca or egg capsule reddish brown when deposited, then changing to black; about 3/8" (8-19 mm) long, with length about 1.5 times width; subdivisional furrows extending from less than midwidth to beyond midwidth but are not entire; prominent terminal point; and usually with 8 eggs on each side. SIMILAR GROUPS
Adults only). (1) Smokybrown cockroaches (Periplaneta fuliginosa) with wings extending to tip of abdomen. (2) American cockroach (P. americana), Australian cockroach (P. australasiae), and brown cockroach (P. brunnea) with wings extending to tip of abdomen and with pale markings. (3) Other cockroaches are either smaller or larger, have fully developed wings, are not uniformly black in color, and/or are not associated with structures.

BIOLOGY
The female usually deposits her ootheca within about 30 hours (rang 12-120) after it is formed. It is either dropped or glued to something in a warm protected area near a food source. On the average, the female will produce about 8 (rang 1-18) oothecae with each containing about 16 eggs.

Developmental time (egg to adult) is influenced by temperature, varying from 206-800 days but it takes about 575 (males) and 602 (females ) days at ordinary room conditions. Adult females live 34-181 days whereas, males live 112-160 days.

HABITS
In many areas, the oriental cockroach survives quite well outdoors and spends considerable time there. It is typically found under debris, stones, and leaf litter, but also in wall and porch voids. It has been observed to survive outdoors during 13 weeks of almost continuous freezing weather.

They usually enter buildings via door thresholds, under sliding glass doors, along utility pipes and air ducts, through unscreened ventilators and from floor drains. Indoors, they are typically found in crawl spaces, cellars, basements, and on the first floor but at times on higher floors, especially around water pipes which they typically climb.

They feed on all kinds of food and decaying organic matter, but prefer to feed on starchy foods. They are much despised because of their strong "roachy" odor and because they feed on filth.

CONTROL
Follow the standard control procedures but pay particular attention to damp crawl spaces, basements, and floor drains. Outside perimeter/barrier treatments are quite effective, especially when microencapsulated or wettable powder formulations are used.
 

Indianmeal Moth  

INTRODUCTION
The Indianmeal moth was given its common name by an early American entomologist (Asa Fitch) who found it feeding on cornmeal (Indian meal). It is probably the most important and most commonly encountered pest of stored products found in the home and in grocery stores in the United States. Of Old World origin, it is now found worldwide.

RECOGNITION
Adults with wingspread (wing tip to wing tip) about 5/8-3/4? (16-20 mm). Wings pale gray but front wing with outer 2/3’s reddish brown with a coppery luster.

Mature larva usually about ½” (range 9-19 mm) long. Usually dirty white but color may vary to a greenish or pinkish or brownish hue depending on its food, with head and prothoracic plate/shield yellowish brown to reddish brown. With 5 pairs of well-developed prolegs on abdomen and each bearing crochets (hooks). Prespiracular tubercle (wartlike area between spiracle and front edge of segment) of prothorax with 2 setae (hairs). Tubercle VI on mesothorax (wartlike area near and above leg) with 1 seta (hair). Body without pinacula (dark or pale wartlike area at base of hairs or setae) on mesothorax, metathorax, and 1st 9 abdominal segments. Rim around spiracles of about even thickness.

SIMILAR GROUPS
(1) Carpet/tapestry moth (Trichophaga tapetzella) with basal 1/3 of front wing dark down to black, remainder of wing white mottled with gray and black.
(2) Other small moths lack front wing with basal 1/3 pale and remainder dark, wing span of about 5/8-3/4” (16-19 mm), and /or hind wing broader than front wing and fringed with long hairlike scales.

BIOLOGY
Chiefly at night, the female lays 100-400 eggs, singly or in small groups, on the larval food material during a period of 1-18 days. Upon hatching, the larva establishes itself in a crevice of the food material. It feeds in or near a tunnellike case it has webbed together of frass and silk. The larval period lasts 13-288 days, depending primarily on temperature and food availability. When the last instar larva is ready to pupate, it leaves the food and wanders about until a suitable pupation site is found. There are usually 4-6 generations per year (range 4-8), with the life cycle (egg to egg) typically requiring 25-135 days (range 25-305).

HABITS
The adults cause no damage. The larvae are surface feeders and generally produce a lot of webbing throughout the infested part of materials. They are general feeders and attack grain products, a wide variety of dried fruits, seeds, nuts, graham crackers, powdered milk, biscuits, chocolate, candies, dried red peppers, dry dog food, and bird seed. They are very destructive wherever dried fruits are stored. Preferred are the coarser grades of flour such as whole wheat, graham flour, and cornmeal, but they can breed in shelled or ear corn.
When the larvae wander about looking for pupation sites in homes, they are often mistaken for clothes moth larvae. Likewise, when the moths are flying, they are also mistaken for clothes moths.

Adults are attracted to light.

CONTROL
Follow the standard control procedures for stored product pests but remember that pupation takes place away from the infested food material.

Carpet Beetle   
 

INTRODUCTION
The varied carpet beetle probably gets its common name because there is great variation in the color pattern on its dorsal surface. This species is known to cause dermatitis in humans. It is worldwide in distribution and is found throughout the United States .

RECOGNITION
Adults abut 1/16-1/8” (1.8-3.2 mm) long. Body black, with pattern of yellow and white scales on pronotum and elytra (wing covers), 2 transverse zigzag bands of white scales bordered by yellow scales on elytra; scales elongate, 2-3 times as long as broad; lower/underside of body covered with grayish yellow scales. Antennae short, with 3-segmented, compact club. Posterior end of elytra evenly rounded. Abdominal 5th sternite  broadly and deeply emarginate (notched) apically. In addition, body oval, head more or less concealed from above, with a median ocellus, and tarsi 5-5-5 .

Larval length up to ¼” (4-5 mm). Stout, widest posteriorly. Color dark brown to black. Covered with brown hairs; with tufts of spear-headed hairs (hastisetae) arising from membranous areas on the sides of abdominal segments 5-6-7 pointing towards the rear and converging towards the center, heads of spear-headed hairs of hind tufts equal in length to combined length of 7-8 preceding segments. Antennae with segment 2 less than 2.5 times as long as broad. Abdominal sternites entirely membraneous.

SIMILAR GROUPS
(1) Carpet beetle (anthrenus schrophulariae) with brick red scales along midline of elytra (wing covers). (2) Furniture carpet beetle (Anthrenus flavipes) with pronotum and elytra patterned with white, yellow, and brown scales, underside of body pure white, posterior end of elytra with shallow notch at midline. (3) Other dermestids (Dermestidae) with less compact antennal club of usually more than 3 segments, hairs on dorsal surface somewhat flattened but not scalelike, and/or 5th abdominal sternite not deeply notched apically. (4) Poderpost/deathwatch/anobiid beetles (Anobiidae) with antenna longer, if clubbed, then club asymmetrical (lopsided). (5) Other beetles with oval body form lack a median ocellus and/or lack scalelike hairs.

DAMAGE AND SIGNS OF INFESTATION
Fabrics typically have much surface damage and holes here and there, but larvae can cause large irregular holes in material. Furs and brushes have mostly the tips of hairs damaged, leaving uneven areas. With museum insect specimens, the accumulation of fine powder/frass beneath the specimen is often the only indication of these beetle’s presence. Larval caste/molt skins are often present. Frass/droppings are minute, irregular in form, often the color of the material being damaged. The larvae may burrow through packaging materials when seeking food.

BIOLOGY
Females do not always lay their eggs on larval food material. The eggs hatch in 17-18 days. The larval period ranges from 222-323 days but may last up to 623 days under Adverse conditions of temperature, humidity, and food, and requires an average of 7-8 molts (range 5-16). The larva pupates in the last larval skin and pupation lasts 10-13 days. Developmental time (egg to adult) usually requires 249-354 days at room temperature, but may take as long as 2-3 years depending on temperature and food. Adult males live 13-28 days whereas, females live 14-44 days.

One case of dermatitis occurred in a man over a 5-year period due to hypersensitivity to an infestation in his bedroom carpet. Inhalation of large quantities of the larval spear-headed hairs may cause pulmonary irritation; Anthrenus spp. Are known to cause this condition.

HABITS
Varied carpet beetle larvae feed on a wide variety of animal and plant products. Animal-origin materials include woolens, carpets, furs, hides, feathers, horns, bones, hair, silk, fish meal, insect pupae, and dead insects. Plant-origin materials include rye meal, corn, red pepper, cacao, cereals, etc. Their favored foods are insects and spiders which makes them a major pest of museum collections and buildings with cluster fly, boxelder bug, etc. problems.

On fabrics, larvae tend to surface graze but are  quite capable of making small or large irregular holes. On furs and bristles, they damage mostly the tips leaving uneven areas. On dead insects, they typically feed from within and the accumulation of fine powder/frass beneath the specimen is usually the only indication of their presence. The larvae may burrow through packaging materials to get to the contained food.

Adults are found outside during warm weather. They are often found on flowers, particularly in the spring and especially on spiraea spp., where they often eat the pollen. Females seek out the nests of bees, wasps, and spiders as oviposition sites, as well as bird nests. Inside, adults are often found at windows during the spring.

The primary breeding areas are quite diverse and may include obscure or unusual places such as wall/ceiling voids where yellowjackets, honey bees, etc. lived or where cluster flies, boxelder bugs, etc. overwintered, rodent bait left in attics, crawl spaces, or basements; wasp and hornet nests in attics, under eaves, around windows, etc.; dead lint and hair accumulate; animal trophies or rugs; insulation which contains animal hair; dead animals in the chimney flue; etc. In such places, the larvae feed on the animal and/or plant material present.

The larvae tend to wander about and can be found far from the primary infestation. When disturbed, the larva erect their hair tufts and spread the bristles and hairs, forming a ball.

Adults hatching form indoor pupae avoid or shun light until egg laying is mostly complete, and then become attracted to light. Most outdoor adults show an attraction to light.

CONTROL
The key to controlling varied carpet beetles is to find the primary source(s) of infestation and eliminate it/them. Besides the obvious clothing, furs, drapes, carpeting, and stored products, it may be necessary to check for the more unusual places such as those listed above. Ask the customer about both current and past occurrences of flies in the winter, boxelder bugs, rodent problems, birds nesting on/in the building, etc.

The thorough inspection should be followed by good sanitation practices, and pesticide application when required. Museum specimens may be treated with heat and/or cold if applicable (be careful of possible damage to specimens) or with fumigants. Refer to the control section under the general treatment of fabric and paper pests for details.

Clothes Moth  

INTRODUCTION
This species is less commonly encountered and of far less economic importance than the webbing clothes moth. Its common name comes from the silken tube/case spun by the larva and which is carried about wherever the larva goes. The casemaking clothes moth is worldwide in distribution, but is more common in the southern United States .

RECOGNITION
Adults measure about 3/8-1/2” (10-14 mm) from wing tip to wing tip, both wings long and narrow. Body and wings buff to golden with brownish tinge, except for 3 dark spots on each front wing which may be indistinct or rubbed off with age. Hind wing fringed with long hairs. Eyes wider than space between them.

Mature larva up to 3/8” (10 mm) long. Whitish except for brown head and dorsal divided shield plate on prothorax. With 1 distinct ocellus on each side. Setae (hairs) IV and V (near and below spiracle) on 7th abdominal segment about same distance apart as distance from either to spiracle. Prolegs on abdominal segments 3-4-5-6 and 10 (anal/last segment), with crochets (hooks on ends) arranged in single complete ellipse on prolegs 3-6.

SIMILAR GROUPS
(1) Webbing clothes moth (Tineola bisselliella) adult lacks 3 dark spots on wing, has reddish tuft on head. (2) Carpet/tapestry moth (Trichophaga tapetzella)adult with basal/inner 1/3 of front wing dark, remainder white mottled with dark specks. (3) Angoumois grain moth (Sitotroga cerealella) adult hind wing with tip abruptly narrowed towards front margin, hair fringe on hind margin/edge about as long as wing is wide, whitish stripe running from base to beyond center of wing. (4) Mediterranean flour moth (Anagasta kuehniella) adult front wing gray with black cross lines, wing span ¾-1” (20-25 mm). (5) Indianmeal moth (Plodia interpunctella) adult front wing with basal/inner 1/3 buff colored, outer 2/3’s coppery brown, wing span 5/8-3/4” (16-19 mm). (6) Other moths generally much longer, attracted to light.

DAMAGE AND SIGNS OF INFESTATION
Silken cases which are cigar-shaped, open-ended, 1/16-3/8” (1.5-10 mm) long, with pieces of infested material incorporated into the case, and usually attached to the material at one end, contain the larva. Surface feeding/grazing in irregular furrows or holes if infestation severe. The case-containing the pupa is usually located in a crack or crevice, not on the infested material.

BIOLOGY
Females mate on the day they emerge as adults and can start laying eggs the next day. They lay an average of about 37-48 eggs (range 8-83) singly on suitable larval food. The eggs hatch in 4-7 days and the larva wanders about for 24 hours. The larval stage lasts about 33-90 days depending on temperature and humidity, during which there will be 5-11 molts. The mature larva seeks a sheltered place to pupate, and pupation lasts about 9-19 days depending on the temperature. Developmental time (egg to adult) takes from 46-116 days. Female adults live about 3-8 days and males live about 3-5 days.

HABITS
Casemaking clothes moth larvae attack primarily materials of animal origin and secondarily those of plant origin. Animal-origin materials include feathers, wools, rugs, furs, mummified carcasses, taxidermy mounts, and piano felts. Plant-origin materials include tobacco, various herbs and seasonings, hemp, various plant-based drugs, linseed, almonds, saffron, etc. It is particularly a pest of feathers/down and hair/fur.

The larvae moves by extending its head and thoracic legs out of its case and then drags the case along. It can feed from either end of the case. The larva usually grazes here and there causing only surface furrows but may occasionally cause holes by feeding in one place for some time. It rarely spins silk on the material. When it is ready to pupate, the larva seeks a protected place, such as a crack or crevice which is usually off the infested material.

Adults do not feed. They shun light, not being attracted to lights as are most moth species. The males are smaller and are active fliers whereas, the females are sluggish and fly only short distances.

CONTROL
The key to control is proper identification, a thorough inspection, good sanitation, and pesticide application when required. Refer to this section under the general treatment of fabric and  paper pests for details.

If the source(s) of the infestation cannot be found in the usual places check the air ducts and especially the cold air return. If this is a problem area, the ducts should be professionally cleaned. If pets are or have been present, check where pet hair may accumulate such as behind and under baseboards, between cracks of
flooring, etc.

Bumble Bee  

INTRODUCTION
The common name of bumble bee possibly comes from their rather large, clumsy appearance and/or the buzzing sound they make as they fly. In the urban setting, bumble bees do not usually nest in structures but are of concern because of their abundance around the many flowering plants typical of yards, and because they can sting. There are about 51 species (45 in Bombus, 6 in Psithyrus) in the United States and Canada , and as a group they are found throughout the United States .

RECOGNITION
Adult worker body length about ¼-1” (6-25 mm), queens about ¾-1” (17-25 mm) long; robust in form. Color black with yellow (rarely orange) markings; with overall fuzzy appearance, including top surface of abdomen. Head with distinct  space between base of compound eye and base of mandible. Hind tibia with apical spurs. Front wing with 2nd submarginal cell more or less rectangular, about as long as 1st submarginal cell. Hind wing lacks a jugal lobe (lobe on rear margin near body). Stinger relatively smooth, with small barbs.

In addition, Bombus with hind tibia modified into pollen basket (surface bare and polished, marginal hair fringe) whereas, Psithyrus lacks pollen basket, hind tibia slender.

SIMILAR GROUPS
(1) Carpenter bees (Xylocopa spp.) with top surface of abdomen largely bare and shining, front wing with 2nd submarginal cell triangular, and hind wing with jugal lobe (lobe on rear margin near body). (2) Some robber flies (Diptera: Asilidae) with only 1 pair of wings. (3) Some hawk moths (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae) with siphoning mouthparts.

BIOLOGY
Bumble bees are social insects which live in nests or colonies. The adults are represented by workers (Psithyrus spp.lack workers) which are sterile females, queens, and males (drones) which come from unfertilized eggs and usually appear in late summer. Typically, only inseminated queens overwinter and do so underground. In the spring, the queens of Psithyrus species wait until the Bombus nests are moderate in size and then parasitize them. The Bombus queens select a suitable subterranean cavity or surface grass clump as a nesting site. Then the Bombus queen fashions a honey pot of wax scales near the nest entrance into which she regurgitates nectar. Next she makes a pollen clump on the nest floor and lays 8-10 eggs on it. The queen will periodically add pollen and nectar to the peripheral edges of the clump, and eventually more eggs.

Developmental time (egg to adult) is 16-25 days, with 4 larval molts. Worker live about 2 weeks. Most first brood workers are small due to nutrition. The queen will increase the number of eggs laid as the number of workers to care for them increases.

During the summer, parasitism may eliminate up to 50% of the colony’s workers each week. However, a mature bumble bee nest ultimately contains about 50-400  bees at any given time; the largest known nest contained 756 bees and 385 brood (larvae and pupae).

The nest temperature is regulated to about 86° F (30° C). This thermoregulation is accomplished by the bee relaxing the 3rd  axillary muscle to its wings which unhinges the wings from the main power-producing thoracic muscles. Then contractions of these large muscles produces body heat without wing movement.

In the late summer only males (drones) and new queens are reared in the nest. Once these new queens emerge, they mate and find a suitable place to overwinter. The males, workers, old queen, and any virgin new queens die with the onset of cold weather.

HABITS
Depending on the Bombus species, the overwintering queen will select an appropriate nesting site the following spring. The queen of some Bombus  species locate a dark cavity at least ¾” (2 cm) high by 1 1/8” (3 cm) wide containing fine plant fiber; such a nest is usually underground and often an abandoned mouse nest. Queens of other Bombus species select a dense clump of grass on the surface for a nest, adding grass on top. The queens of Psithyrus species are all parasitic on Bombus nests are moderate in size and can therefore support them. They then enter the nest, kill the Bombus queen, and take over the nest using the Bombus workers to care for her young. Bombus queens of later emerging Bombus species sometimes also parasitize the nests of earlier emerging Bombus species.

Bumble bees foraging for nectar fly at 7-12 mph (11-20 km/hr) and spend only 2-4 minutes inside the nest between trips. Probably they will travel at least 3 mi (5 km) if necessary for nectar. They orientate by the sky’s polarized light via their 3 ocelli, so thy can forage before and after light when objects and landmarks are not visible. They use their theromoregulation procedure to warm up flight muscles before the sun rises and to also forage when temperatures are below 50° F (10° C; lowest observed flight at 26° F/=3.6° C) whereas, most bees stop foraging at 61° F (16° C).

Each worker forages independently, and bumble bees never exchange food. Old cocoons are used to store both pollen and nectar. Only enough food (honey and pollen) for a few days is stored at any given time which helps discourage nest predation by skunks, foxes, etc.

Defense is usually done by using their relatively smooth stingers which can be used over and over. Some species will also spray feces, and some cover the intruder with regurgitated honey. People sensitive to insect venom should exercise care around bumble bee nests.

CONTROL
Bumble bees are considered beneficial insects because they pollinate the flowers of many plant species. However, if their nest is located in or close to an occupied structure or recreational area, then control is warranted. During the day find the location of each nest by observing where the bees disappear into the ground, grass clump, or structure. At night using background light and while wearing a bee veil, apply an appropriately labeled pyrethroid pesticide. Dusts work best when applied to an area 6” (15 cm) around the nest entrance. For structural nests, treat with dust or aerosol but do not seal the entrance. Structural nests should be either retreated with a long-lasting repellent material and sealed or the void opened up and cleaned out within 1-2 days to prevent future problems with dermestid beetles, spider beetles, and/or psocids.

Honey Bee  

INTRODUCTION
Honey bees get their common name from the sweet yellowish to brownish fluid they make from the nectar of flowers and use as food. Honey bees not only provide honey and wax, but as pollinators are of far greater importance. They are also responsible for a large share of insect stings, although many stings blamed on “bees” are actually done by yellowjackets. Honey bees are worldwide in distribution.

RECOGINTION
Adult worker’s body length about ½-5/8” (11-15 mm). Color usually orangish brown to sometimes black with body mostly covered with branched, pale hairs, most dense on thorax. Eyes hairy. First segment of hind tarsus enlarged, flattened. In addition, hind lack apical spurs; front wing venation with marginal cell narrow, parallel-sided, and 3rd submarginal cell oblique; hind wings with jugal lobe (lobe on rear margin near body). Barbed stinger present.

Queens slightly larger, about 5/8-3/4” (15-20 mm) long, pointed abdomen extends well beyond wing tips, with smooth stinger. Males or drones robust, about 5/8” (15-17 mm) long, stinger absent.

Africanized honey bees look just like our “domestic” bees. A specialist is required to identify individual specimens.

SIMILAR GROUPS
(1) Yellowjackets (vespidae) have abdomen usually banded with yellow and black, hind tarsal 1st segment not enlarged, hind wing lacks a jugal lobe (lobe on rear margin near body). (2) Other bees (various families) lack hairy eyes, have apical spurs on hind tibiae, lack having front wing’s marginal cell narrow and parallel-sided and 3rd submarginal cell oblique. (3)Some syrphid flies (Diptera: Syrphidae) which resemble honey bees, with 1 pair of wings.

BIOLOGY
Honey bees are social insects and live as colonies in hives, with mature colonies of 20,000-80,000 individuals. Adults are represented by workers which are infertile females, a queen or inseminated female, and drones (males) which come from unfertilized eggs.

The entire population overwinters. There is only one egg-laying queen in the hive and she mates only once. She can lay as many as 1,500 to 2,000 eggs per day, and may live as long as 5 years. The queen produces many pheromones, mostly from her mandibular glands, which regulate among other things the production of new queens and inhibit development of worker ovaries. The young workers care for the young or brood, build the comb, provide hive ventilation, and guard the hive entrance. Older workers serve as foragers to gather pollen, nectar, and propolis or bee glue. Workers live only about 5 to 7 weeks during the summer but those emerging in the autumn, overwinter. Drones (males) appear periodically and are short lived, usually living only a few weeks.

Honey bees swarm primarily when the colony size gets too large for the available hive space or the queen begins to wane or fail. New queens are produced and the old queen leaves with a large number of workers.

HABITS
Honey bees are not aggressive, and do not search for something to attack. Instead, they are defensive and will attack only whatever seems to threaten the colony.

Swarms first move to a temporary site such as a tree branch. The swarm will usually remain here for about 24-48 hours until permanent quarters are located, and then moves on. Permanent quarters may consist of a bee hive, hollow tree, hollow wall, attic, etc., typically some place which is sheltered from the weather.

Bees in a swarm are very docile and not likely to sting because they harbor no food stores or young and therefore, have nothing to defend. Likewise, honey bees encountered away from the hive are unlikely to sting unless severely provoked, like stepping on them. However, if the hive entrance is approached, the guard bees can become very aggressive. Worker bees have barbed stingers and when used, the stinger, poison sac, and associated tissue are torn from the body. If the stinger is not removed immediately, muscle contractions will drive the stinger deeper and deeper into the skin and there is greater time for toxin injection. In addition, the stinger gives off a pheromone which attracts other bees and induces an alarm and attack behavior. Therefore, immediate removal with a fingernail or knife blade is recommended; squeezing only forces more venom in.

The normal reaction to bee stings is local pain for a few minutes followed by swelling at the sting site which subsides in a few hours. Often itching and heat may last for a few hours. First-aid consists of quickly removing the stinger with a fingernail or knife blade. After stinger removal, do not rub the area because this causes the venom to spread, or scratch the area which may cause secondary infection, but clean it with soap and water followed by an antiseptic. A cold compress will reduce pain and swelling. If the reaction is more severe than  a small welt, consult a physician immediately because death can occur within 15-30 minutes from severe allergic reactions.

Africanized honey bees are much more aggressive and will sting with little provocation, even swarms may be dangerous. They will pursue the intruder/victim for up to 328 ft (100 m) whereas, domestic bees pursue only about 33 ft (10 m). They use a wider range of nesting sites, sometimes including subterranean cavities.

CONTROL
For swarmers in the yard, contact the cooperative extension service or call a local beekeeper supply shop for beekeepers interested in removing swarms. These same contacts are worth a try for live removal from walls and attics.

Live removal of honey bees is desirable and the preferred method in the case of brick walls, but it is often impossible to locate anyone willing to do this. Live removal involves trapping the bees out and capturing them with a decoy hive containing a queen and a few bees, killing the queen and the few remaining bees with pyrethrins or resmethrin, and after several days allowing the bees back in to remove the honey. Next, the nest void should be treated with a long-lasting repellent dust to discourage wax moths, dermestid beetles, etc., and then immediately sealed. This whole process may take 3-6 weeks.

If honey bees must be killed in a wall or attic, pesticide application should be made at night using only background light; a bee veil should be worn. Appropriately labeled aerosol pyrethroids are most convenient and effective, with dusts being second choice.

For walls, first locate the entrance/exit(s) being used. Next, the colony’s nest should be located because the nest can be far enough away from the entrance that entryway-applied insecticides will not reach the bees. The nest can best be located at night by tapping on the walls in the area of buzzing and listening for the loudest sound. Also, honey bees keep the center of their nest at about 95°F (35° C) which will warm the wall enough such that it can often be detected with one’s hand.

For walls, first seal any possible entrances to living quarters such as window sashes. Then the insecticide application can be made either directly through the entrance hole or by drilling a small hole (3/32-18” or 2-3 mm) through the inside wall, the latter being necessary for nests located some distance from the entrance hole. Seal the application hole immediately after insecticide introduction. For attics, direct application is required.

The next day the dead bees, comb, and honey must be removed or else as the wax deteriorates, there will be a strong honey and dead bee odor, the honey will often seep through the plaster walls, and/or this debris will attract other insects and mice. In the case of a wall, the wall must be opened up. It is suggested that the potential customer be notified in writing of their responsibility in this matter before any contract is signed.

In the residential situation, it may be desirable to discourage foraging bees from coming around the home. This is especially true if small children or allergic people are present. Discouragement consists of the removal or preventing access to any sugar, food, or water which may attract them, such as soda cans, flowers, water dishes, etc. Recommend that flowering vegetation be located away from doorways, decks, sidewalks, mailboxes, and other areas frequented by people. Also, lawns should be kept free of white clover and flowering weeds.

Hornet  

INTRODUCTION
This atypically large black-and-white yellowjacket gets its common name of baldfaced form its largely black color but mostly white face, and that of hornet because of its large size and aerial nest.   Baldfaced hornets are found throughout the United States .

RECOGNITION
Adult workers about 5/8-3/4+” (15-20+mm) long; queens about ¾+” (20+ mm).  Color black with white pattern on most of face, as 2 angled stripes on thorax towards head and on last 3 abdominal segments.  Head with clypeus (upper lip) broadly truncate, slightly notched at apex.  Hind wing without a jugal lobe (lobe on rear near body).  Pronotum in lateral view almost triangular, extending to tegula (structure at base of front wing) or nearly so.  Middle tibia with 2 apical spurs.  Builds paper enclosed aerial nests, grey in color. 

SIMILAR GROUPS
(1) other Dolichovespula spp.  (Vespidae) with pale markings on 1st 3 abdominal segments, less than 5/8” (15mm) long.  (2) Yellowjackets (Vespula spp.) with yellow markings including on 1st 3 abdominal segments, usually less than 5/8” (15 mm).  (3) European hornet (Vespa Crabro) with pale markings on 1st 3 abdominal segments, nest envelope brown.

BIOLOGY
Baldfaced hornets are social insects which live in aerial nests.  The adults are represented by workers which are sterile females, queens, and males which come from unfertilized eggs and usually appear in the late summer.  Only inseminated females overwinter and do so in sheltered places.  In the spring, she uses chewed-up cellulose material to build a paper carton nest of several dozen cells covered by a paper envelope.  One egg is laid in each cell as it is constructed.  The queen feeds the developing larvae arthropod protein material and nectar.  After about 30 days, the first 5-7 workers emerge and shortly thereafter take over all the work except for egg laying.  The next will eventually consist of 3-5 rounded paper combs which are open ventrally and attached one below another, and are covered with a many-layered envelope.  Nest size varies up to 3,500 cells in 5 combs but usually consists of less than 2, 000 cells in 3-4 combs and contains 100-400 workers at its peak (range to 636 workers).  Later in the season, larger reproductive cells are built in which queens and males will be reared; males are often reared in old worker cells.  The colony is then entering the declining phase.  The newly emerged queens and males leave the nest and mate.  Only inseminated queens hibernate and survive the winter.  The founding queen, the workers, and the males all die.

HABITS
The overwintering queen selects the nest site.  This can vary from shrubs or vines at ground level to 66 ft. (20m) or higher in trees.  Nests may also be built on overhangs, utility poles, houses, sheds, or other structures.  Nearly all nests are constructed in exposed locations.  At maturity, the nests can be quite impressive with sizes of up to 14” (35cm) in diameter and over 24” (60+ cm) in length.

Often nests located in vegetation are not discovered until the leaves fall in the autumn.  Nests are not reused the next season. 

CONTROL
baldfaced hornets are beneficial insects by helping to control many pest insect species.  However, if the nest is located close to the ground and near an occupied structure or recreational area, then control is warranted.

During the day locate the nest.  Control should be done at night when most of the baldfaced hornets are in the nest.  Only background lighting should be used and a bee veil should be worn.  Apply an appropriately labeled aerosol through the entrance hole at the bottom of the nest.  For high nests a “bee pole” which allows application of the aerosol from the ground or a sizeable distance away gives added safety for the applicator.  The nest should be removed, placed in a plastic garbage bag, and discarded so that no emerging pupae can cause problems.

Yellow Jackets 

INTRODUCTION
Yellowjackets receive their common name from their typical black and yellow color pattern. They are worldwide in distribution with about 16 species occurring in the United States.

RECOGNITION
Adult workers about 3/8-5/8” (10-16mm) long depending on the species, with their respective queens about 25% longer. Abdomen usually banded with yellow and black, several species with white and black, and 2 northern species also marked with red. Wings folded longitudinally at rest. In addition, pronotum in lateral view almost triangular, extending to tegula (structure at base of front wing) or nearly so; front wing 1st discoidal cell about half wing length; hind wing lacks jugal lobe (lobe on rear margin near body); clypeus (front lip) broadly truncate and slightly notched; middle tibiae with 2 apical spurs. The worker abdominal color pattern is usually distinctive for each species but because it does vary, a series of specimens may be required for identification.

SIMILAR GROUPS
1. Baldfaced hornets (D. maculate) mostly black with yellowish-white markings on face, thorax, and end of abdomen.
2. European hornets (Vespa crabro) very large (up to 1 3/8”/35m long), brownish with orange stripes.
3. Honey bees (Apidae) with hairy eyes, hind tarsal 1st segment enlarged and flattened, hind wing with jugal lobe (lobe on rear margin near body), abdomen not banded with yellow and black,
4. Some clear-wing moths (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae) which resemble yellowjackets, with siphoning mouthparts.

REPRESENTATIVE SPECIES
1. The common yellowjacket, Vespula vulgaris (Linnaeus), is found throughout most of the United States.
2. The eastern yellowjacket, V. maculifrons (Buysson), is common east of the Great Plains.
3. The German yellowjacket, V. germanica (Fabricius), occurs throughout most of the United States except in the far south.
4. The southern yellowjacket, V. squamosa (Drury), is the most common southern species but its range extends northward to the Great Lakes and westward to central Texas.
5. The western yellowjacket V. pensylvanica (Saussure), is the most common and pestiferous in California and occurs primarily west of the Great Plains.
6. The aerial yellowjacket, Dolichovespula arenaria (Fabricius), is distributed throughout most of the United States.

BIOLOGY
Yellowjackets are social insects and live in nests or colonies. The adults are represented by workers which are sterile females, queens, and males which come from unfertilized eggs and usually appear in late summer.

Typically, only inseminated queens overwinter and do so in sheltered places. In the spring, she uses chewed-up cellulose material to build up a paper carton nest of a few cells which will eventually consist of 30 to 55 cells covered by a paper envelope. One egg is laid in each cell and the queen feeds the developing larvae arthropod protein material and nectar. After about 30 days, the first 5 to 7 workers emerge and shortly thereafter take over all the work except egg laying. The nest will eventually consist of a number of rounded paper combs which are open ventrally and attached one below another and are usually covered with a many-layered paper envelope. Nest size varies from 300 to 120,000 cells, averaging 2,000 to 6,000 cells, and usually contains 1,000 to 4,000 workers at its peak. Later in the season, larger reproductive cells are built in which queens will be reared; males are usually reared in old worker cells. The colony is then entering the declining phase. The newly emerged queens and males leave the nest and mate. Only the inseminated queens hibernate and survive the winter. The founding queen, the workers, and the males all die.

HABITS
Depending on the species, the overwintered queen will usually select either a subterranean or aerial nesting site. Most of the pest species are ground nesting. However, the German yellowjacket usually nests in buildings in the United States, the western yellowjacket occasionally nests in buildings, and the aerial yellowjacket commonly attaches its nest to shrubs, bushes, houses, garages, sheds, etc.
Those nesting in the ground typically select areas bare of vegetation or else clear an area around the entrance. There are nest entrance guards to protect the colony. Yellowjackets are very slow to sting unless the nest entrance is approached and then they are quite aggressive. Each can sting a number of times, inflicting much pain. Some people become hypersensitive to their stings and future stings can become life threatening. Those nesting in or on buildings are only a problem when the nest or nest entrance is located near human activity. Overwintering queens may enter the living space during the winter seeking warmth, or in the spring when they are looking for a nest site or just trying to get back outside.

CONTROL
Yellowjackets are considered beneficial insects because their food consists mostly of various arthropods, often pest species. However, if their nest is located close to occupied buildings, recreational areas, or within structures, then control is warranted. During the day, locate where the nest entrance is for each colony to be controlled. Control should be done at night when most of the yellowjackets are in the nest. only background lighting should be used and a bee veil should be worn. If it is a ground nest, then dust an area for 6” (15cm) around the entrance hole with an appropriately labeled pesticide dust. If the nest is located in a wall void, then either dust the void via the entrance hole or apply an appropriately labeled aerosol pyrethroid and close the entrance hole. In a day or so, the wall void nest area should be treated with a long-lasting, highly repellant material or else should be opened up and cleaned out to prevent future dermestid beetle, or spider beetle, and/or psocid problems. If it is an aerial nest, then an appropriately labeled aerosol works well.

In situations where pesticide application is not desirable, the use of baited traps can help reduce the number of adults. For German and eastern yellowjackets, grenadine has been found to be a very attractive bait. The traps should be placed 3-8 ft (1.8-2.4 m) above the ground, between the area to be protected and the nesting area, such that they are protected from passers by and the wind, and placed about 5 ft (1.5 m) apart at the height of the season. They should be checked daily, and cleaned and rebaited as required

Box Elder Bug   
 

INTRODUCTION
The common name reflects the fact that this species is a major pest of boxelder trees, Acer negundo Linnaeus. Boxelder bugs are primarily a nuisance pest because they enter structures to overwinter. This species is native to the western states. It is now found from eastern Canada , throughout the eastern United States , and west to eastern Nevada wherever boxelder trees are found.

RECOGNITION
Adults about 1/2 “ (11-14 mm) long; elongate-oval, somewhat flattened with head narrower than pronotum. Color black with reddish lines on dorsum, pronotum with margins and median line reddish, and basal half of wings with reddish margin. Head with ocelli present; mouthparts piercing-sucking, forming a beak held beneath body when not in use. Antenna 4-segmented, about half body length. Wings with outer membraneous  (like cellophane) part many veined. Scent glands (opening on each side of thorax between 2nd and 3rd pair of legs) absent.

Nymphs similar to adults but lack wings although wingpads may be present, and bright red in color.

SIMILAR GROUPS
(1) Western boxelder bug (Boisea rubrolineata) shorter, averaging 3/8” (10 mm) long, basal half of wing with red margin and 3 longitudinal red stripes, and found in Nevada, Arizona, Texas, the Pacific Coastal states, and British Columbia.

(2) Small milkweed bug (Lygaeus kalmii) with pronotum lacking median red line, head with red mark between eyes, and membraneous tip of wings with only 4 or 5 veins. (3) red bugs or stainers (Pyrrhocoridae) lack ocelli and front femora usually enlarged/swollen. (4) Leaffooted bugs (Coreidae) with well-developed scent glands and hind tibiae often expanded and leaflike. (5) Seed bugs (Lygaeidae) have membraneous part of wings with only 4 to 5 veins and front femora usually enlarged/swollen.

BIOLOGY
The overwintering adults emerge from hibernation and the females lay clusters of straw-yellow eggs on stones, leaves, grass, shrubs, and trees, especially in the bark crevices of boxelder trees. These eggs turn red as the embryos develop and hatch in about 2 weeks. These nymphs feed on fallen boxelder seeds and later on new leaves, going through 5 instars. In the warmer regions of the United States , there are 2 generations per year.

HABITS
The overwintering adults emerge from hibernation when the boxelder buds open and fly back to their host trees, typically in late April to early May. They first feed on the fallen boxelder seeds and later move to the female boxelder trees when the seeds begin to form, feeding on the newly developing leaves.

The primary host plant is the see-bearing (female) boxelder tree, but they also occur on seed-bearing silver maple trees, Acer saccharinum Linnaeus. They do not feed on the male trees. Occasionally, they will feed on the fruits of plum and apple trees.

In the autumn, boxelder bugs become gregarious and congregate on the south side of rocks, trees, and buildings where the sun hits. After large masses congregate, they may fly to nearby buildings to hibernate for the winter.

Inside, boxelder bugs are primarily a nuisance pest. However, their fecal material may cause a red stain, resulting in discoloration on curtains, drapes, clothing, and other resting places. When crushed or handled roughly, they produce a strong, disagreeable odor. They occasionally “bite” people, causing as skin irritation and producing a red spot similar to a small ulcer.

CONTROL
No attempt should be made to kill these bugs in wall voids at any time because dead insect bodies attract dermestid beetles (larder beetles, carpet beetles, etc.). Dermestid larvae wander and readily enter the living space, causing numerous complaints. Instead, wait until summer when all live overwintering adults are out of the wall voids. Then follow the outside control measures given below. However, temporary relief is possible by using a vacuum to remove the bugs and sealing their entryways into the living space.

Control begins outside. Reducing the outdoor population of boxelder bugs is highly recommended. Reduction is achieved by spraying infested trees with the application timed to kill the young 1st generation nymphs and then again for those of each succeeding generation. Such spraying requires special equipment and usually an ornamental license, so it is typically done by a private contractor.

Unfortunately, on occasion some or all of the infested trees may not be on your customer’s property. In this case, the neighbors should be educated about the problem in an attempt to secure their cooperation. Regardless, use of preventative physical and chemical barriers aimed at adults before they congregate and attempt to enter buildings is recommended. Physical barriers involve exclusion. Although total exclusion is probably not possible, all vents (roof, overhang, weepholes, etc.) should be screened with at least 16-mesh screening. Caulk (silicone based is recommended) around cable entrances, windows, doors, overhangs, facia boards, etc. Installation of closable chimney caps may be advisable. These steps should be taken in June or July.

Cluster Fly  

INTRODUCTION
The common name reflects this species’ habit of forming compact clusters of hibernating individuals, typically in wall voids or attics, It is widely distributed in Europe , Canada , and throughout the United States except for those states bordering the Gulf of Mexico . Specifically, cluster flies occur wherever their host earthworm, Allolbophora rosea (Savigny), occurs, which is usually in a well-drained silt-loam soil with grass cover.

RECOGNITION
Adults about 3/8” (8 mm) long, robust. Color dark gray, non-metallic; thorax lacking distinct stripes but with numerous short golden hairs (may be lost in older specimens); abdomen with irregular lighter areas. Wings with 4th (3rd long) vein (M) sharply bent forward near tip towards and almost meeting 3rd vein at wing margin; wing tips overlap at rest. Sluggish movements. With buckwheat honey odor when crushed.

SIMILAR GROUPS
(1) House fly (Musca domestica) and other muscid flies (Muscidae) have thorax dark with 4 distinct stripes and lacking golden hairs, sides of abdomen usually pale. (2) Blow/bottle flies (Calliphoridae) with abdomen or entire body metallic colored, shining or if body or abdomen non-metallic, then thorax with 3-4 distinct stripes. (3) Other flies either have stripes on thorax, lack golden hairs on thorax, and/or lack 4th vein  of wing strongly bent forward and almost meeting 3rd vein at wing margin.

BIOLOGY
Adults overwinter in sheltered places, emerging in the spring to mate. Eggs are laid in soil cracks and hatch in about 3 days. The larvae are parasitoid upon the earthworm host, entering at almost any point along the body wall. Developmental time (egg to adult) varies from 27-39 days. There are usually 4 generations per year.

HABITS
As days shorten and the weather cools, cluster flies often enter structures to overwinter, sometimes traveling more than a mile to do so. They usually occupy attics and/or the between-wall voids of walls which receive the most sunlight, usually the south and possibly the east or west walls. Typically they use the same structure year after year. They do not multiply within structures.

Cricket   
 

INTRODUCTION
The common name comes from the fact that these crickets often enter houses where they can survive indefinitely.  Having been introduced from Europe , this species is found throughout the United States but is a pest primarily east of the Rocky Mountains .

RECOGNITION
Adults about ¾-7/8” (18-22 mm) long, Color light yellowish brown with 3 dark crossbands on head.  Antennae threadlike, longer than body.  Wings lay flat on the back.  Cerci long, feelerlike.  Hind leg tibial spines short, stout, non-movable.  Tarsi 3-segmented.  Adult female with long tubelike oviposter (egg laying structure) located at tip of abdomen and between cerci.

Nymphs look like adults except smaller, and lack wings and an ovipositor (females).

SIMILAR GROUPS
(1) Field crickets (Gryllus spp.) lack crossbands on top of head.  (2) Cave/camel/stone crickets (Gryllacriddidae) with humpbacked appearance, wingless, antennae touch or almost touch at base, hind femora do not extend beyond tip of abdomen.  (4)  Mole crickets (Gryllotalpidae) with front legs broad and spadelike, antennae much shorter than body length. (5) Earwigs (order Dermaptera) with forcepslike cerci.

DAMAGE
House crickets typically surface feed, leaving the surface roughened from pulling or picking the fibers loose while feeding.  Their feeding sometimes results in an irregular matted network over the surface, or if the infestation is heavy, large areas of the fabric may be eaten out.  Mandible marks along the chewed edges are often visible but only with magnification.  Such marks are much less than 1/32”/1mm wide, not in pairs, and with little or no tearing.  Fecal stains are absent but with fecal pellets on or about the damaged materials.  The larger fecal pellets are about 1/16”-1/8” (2-2.5 mm) long and about 1/32” (1mm) wide, with the pellets almost or entirely lacking longitudinal ridges.  No hairs are on or about the damaged materials.

They can be a problem or nuisance in the autumn, winter, and/or spring; autumn when they enter to hibernate; on warm sunny winter days; and again in the spring when they attempt to leave the structure. Actually, they can be stimulated by warmth to resume activity almost anytime. Sometimes it takes no more than the furnace to be turned on and thoroughly warm the inside of the structure to start activity, but it usually additionally requires a bright sunny day to warm the walls from the outside. Once stimulated, cluster flies seek light. This is why they usually come out around loose-fitting wall switches and outlets, ceiling fixtures, window and door frames, window pulleys, etc. Cluster flies can usually be found at windows crawling on the panes or frames, or around lamps or lights. They are sluggish in their movements in comparison to house flies. They give off a buckwheat honey odor and leave a greasy spot when crushed.

CONTROL
No attempt should be made to kill these insects in wall voids at any time because the bodies of dead insects attract dermestid beetles (larder beetles, carpet beetles, etc.). Dermestid larvae wander and will readily enter the living space, causing numerous complaints. Instead, wait until summer when all live over-wintering adults are out of the wall voids. Then follow the outside control given below. However, temporary relief is possible by using a vacuum and/or space sprays, and sealing interior entrances.

Control begins outside. Reducing the outside population is impractical for cluster flies since their larvae breed in earthworms. Therefore, use of preventative physical and chemical barriers aimed at adults before they congregate and attempt to enter buildings is recommended. Physical barriers involve exclusion.  Although total exclusion is probably not possible, all vents (roof, overhang, weepholes, etc.) should be screened with at least 16-mesh screening. Caulk around cable entrances, windows, doors, and overhangs. These steps should be taken in June or July.

Preventative chemical barriers involve applying a highly repellent, long-lasting residual to all outside vertical walls and the adjacent overhang; microencapsulated pyrethroids or pyrethrins, or pyrethroid wettable powder foundations work best. This application is made just before the last seasonal generation of adults emerge; if in doubt, check with your cooperative extension agent. The timing of this treatment is crucial to its effectiveness. One application is required; in New York , the recommended treatment period is between 15-30 August. If application is made earlier, pests may enter before frost and if made later, then pests may enter before application.

If adults have already begun to congregate and attempt entry into buildings, it may be too late for preventative action. The best solution is physical removal with a good shop type vacuum. Then treat the vertical walls as described above for preventative.

Temporary but immediate indoor relief can be achieved by removal with a vacuum or by using space sprays in individual rooms. To prevent entry of more flies, seal the possible routes of entry. Use silicone caulk and/or foam to seal. Entry points include around window pulleys (seal with tape or steel wool), window frames, door frames, baseboards, etc. For electrical outlets and switch boxes and heating duct and air return vents, remove the coverplate, seal, and replace. For light fixtures and ceiling fans, remove the fixture to its base plate, seal, and replace.

If cluster flies are in a false ceiling area, the population can be reduced by installing an electrocutor insect light trap (ILT); be sure to periodically empty the catch tray. An alternative is to install a continuously burning 60-watt bulb which attracts the flies, causes them to exhaust their stored food, and die right around the light; be sure to remove them with a vacuum. To speed the process, use old fashioned fly strips, glue boards, or other sticky surfaces which may be suspended from the uppermost surface of the false ceiling void near the light. Remove and replace these sticky surfaces when needed. To reduce the number of flies coming into a room from a false ceiling, seal all cracks through which light enters. Use duct tape or caulk. In elevator shafts, install a continuously burning 60-watt bulb located just above the pit floor. Again vacuum dead flies

BIOLOGY
Outdoors, the overwintering eggs hatch in late spring and adults appear in late summer, with only 1 generation per year.  When raised under ideal conditions, females lay an average of 728 eggs.  The nymphs go through 7-8 instars which require an average of about 56 days for males and 53 days for females.  Indoors, females deposit an average of 104 eggs (range 40-70) at room temperature.  Their eggs are placed singly in crevices, such as behind baseboards and other dark places. 

HABITS
During warm weather, house crickets typically live outdoors and especially in garbage dumps.  With the approach of cold weather, they seek sheltered places such as sheds and houses.

These crickets are nocturnal or active at night and usually hide in dark warm places during the day.  Their presence is indicated by the male’s chirping which is done by rubbing their front wings together.  His “calling song” serves to attract females.

Outside, they are often attracted to electric lights in large numbers, sometimes by thousands, and rest on vertical surfaces such as light poles and house walls.  Outside, they feed on plants and dead or live insects, including crickets.

They often enter homes seeking moisture.  When these crickets enter homes, many kinds of clothing and even carpets can be damaged.  Favorite fabrics include wool, cotton, silk and synthetics (particularly acetate, vicose, and triacetate).  Clothes soiled with perspiration are especially attractive to crickets.  They eat out large areas of fabrics as opposed to the small holes typical of clothes moths.

CONTROL
Cricket control starts outdoors with the reduction or elimination of moist harborage near the structure by mowing lawns, weeding plant beds, removing woodpiles etc.  Since they are attracted to lights, change outdoor lighting to less-attractive yellow bulbs or sodium vapor lamps.  Seal possible points of entry such as around windows and doors, holes in masonry, add doorsweeps, and screen windows, doors, etc.

Baits are effective when applied as a band between the structure and peripheral harborages or indoors.  Microencapsulated or wettable powder formulations are particularly effective in the moist areas that crickets prefer.  Mechanical removal with a vacuum works well.  Crack and crevice treatment of possible entry points may reduce invasion or may be required indoors for established infestations.

Lady Bug   
 

INTRODUCTION
Since lady is defined as “a woman of good family, social position, breeding, etc.,” this may refer to the fact that most species of this beetle family are highly beneficial insects; only 3 of 475 United States species are not beneficial.  Some species have a habit of overwintering in structures and are therefore nuisance pests.  Ladybugs are found worldwide with about 475 species occurring in the United States and Canada .

RECOGNITION
Adults about 1/32-3/8” (0.8-10mm) long; shape distinctive, broadly oval to nearly round, strongly convex dorsally, nearly flat ventrally.  Color red, orange, yellow, brown, or shiny black, usually with various markings including white spots; often bright yellow, red or orange with black markings or black with yellow, orange, or red markings.  Head partly to completely concealed from above.  Antenna short to usually very short, 8-11 segmented, with weak club of 3-6 segments.  Tarsi apparently 3-3-3 , actually 4-4-4 (3rd segment minute).

Larvae look like tiny flat alligators, often with numerous spines and/or wartlike structures; color usually blackish, some with red, orange or yellow spots or bands; some species secrete a white waxy material which makes them resemble mealybugs.

SIMILAR GROUPS
(1) Tortoise beetles (Chrysomelidae) with tarsi appearing 4-4-4 , actually 5-5-5 with minute 4th segment.  (2) Handsome fungus beetles (Endomychidae) have base of pronotum with 2 lengthwise grooves and usually black with red or orange.  (3) Marsh beetles (Helodidae) with antenna threadlike or sawtoothed and tarsi 5-5-5 with 4th segment lobed beneath.  (4) Shining mold beetles (Phalacridae) with antennal club distinct, 3-segmented, tarsi apparently 4-4-4 (actually 5-5-5 ), and brown or black with no markings.  (5) Other similarly shaped beetles (order Coleoptera) with a distinct antennal club and/or tarsi different. 

REPRESENTATIVE SPECIES:  1. Asian lady beetle, Harmonia axyridis (Pallas).  Adults typically with pronotum black with wide ivory lateral/side margins and basal median mark yielding dark M-shaped pattern, elytra mustard yellow to dark reddish orange, each usually with several black spots but spots sometimes indistinct or absent; length about ¼-3/8” (6-10mm); found throughout most of United States and parts of Canada.
2 Convergent lady beetle, Hippodamia Convergens Guerin-Meneville.  Adults with head, pronotum, and legs black, pronotum with a whitish margin and centrally with 2 convergent whitish lines, elytra red, each with 6 black marks with anterior 3 smaller than posterior 3 but varying to elytral spots almost absent; length about 1/8-1/4” (4.2-7.3 mm); found throughout the United States and southern western Canada.

3. Ninespotted lady beetle, Coccinella novemnotata Herbst.  Adult with head black with pale band between eyes, pronotum black with pale yellowish front and side margins, elytra orange to reddish yellow each with 4 black spots but varying to elytral spots almost absent, scutellum (triangular piece between elytral bases) black and black extending into elytra; length about 3/16 – ¼” (4.7-7.0 mm); found throughout the United States except for coastal North Carolina southward to west Florida peninsula and from southern Louisiana west through central Texas to southwestern New Mexico, and in southern Canada but extending far northward in western Canada.
4. Spotted lady beetle, Coleomegilla maculate (DeGeer).  Adults elongate, somewhat flattened; color red or yellowish orange, head with black margins, pronotum with 2 black spots, and 6 or 7 black spots on each elytron; length about 1/8-3/8” (4-8mm); found from Ontario through Florida, west to Minnesota and Texas, and west along the Mexican border through southern California.
5. Twicestabbed lady beetle, Chilocorus stigma (Say).  Adults black except pronotal front and side margins, spot on each elytron, and abdomen red or yellow; length about 1/8-3/16” (3.75-5mm); found east of the Rocky Mountains and adjacent southern Canada .
6. Twospotted lady beetle, Adalia bipunctata (Linnaeus).  Adults typically with pronotum black with wide ivory lateral/side margins and basal median mark yielding dark M-shaped pattern, elytra orange, each with a median black spot; length about 1/8-3/16” (3.5-5.2mm); found from Labrador, Canada, to Alabama, west through Alaska and California.
BIOLOGY
The overwintering adults emerge from hibernation and the orange eggs are laid on end in single or multiple groups of 12 on plants infested by aphids (plantlice), mealybugs, scale insects, etc.  Larvae pass through 4 molts.  Mature larvae attach to leaves by the tip of their abdomens and pupate without forming a cocoon.

HABITS
Larvae and adults are predaceous on aphids, mealybugs, mites, scale insects, other soft-bodied insects, and their eggs, making them very beneficial insects.  A few species are leaf feeders and are important plant pests, for example, the Mexican bean beetle, Epilachna varivestis Mulsant.

In the autumn, adults seek protected places in which to overwinter.  These may include under leaves, rocks and landscape timbers but also inhabited structures.  Unfortunately, the release and use of lady beetles for biological control by organic gardeners, the USDA (especially the Asian lady beetle for control of aphids on pecan trees and fruit crops), and others has greatly increased the incidence of their entering structures to overwinter by artificially increasing their numbers.

CONTROL
Because lady beetles are beneficial and are not of any health or structural importance, no direct control is recommended.  Use of preventative physical barriers aimed at adults before they congregate and attempt to enter structures and educating the customer are the best solution.

Physical barriers involve exclusion.  Although total exclusion is probably not possible, all vents (roof, overhand, weep holes, etc.) should be screened with at least 16-mesh screening.  Caulk (silicone based is recommended) around cable entrances, windows, (spring-loaded with a cable running through the flue pipe and a lock-catch in the fireplace) may be advisable.  These steps should be taken in June or July.

No attempt should be made to kill these beetles in wall voids at any time because dead insect bodies attract dermestid beetles (larder beetles, carpet beetles, etc.).  Dermestid larvae wander and readily enter the living space, causing numerous complaints.  Instead, wait until summer when all live overwintering adults are out of wall voids.  Then follow the outside control measures given above.  However, temporary relief is possible by using a vacuum to remove the beetles, and sealing their entryways into the living space.

Temporary but immediate indoor relief can be achieved by vacuuming.  To prevent the entry of more adults, seal the possible routes of entry with paintable silicone caulk and/or expandable foam.  Entry points include around window pulleys (seal with tape or steel wool), window frames, door frames, baseboards, etc.  For electrical outlets and switch boxes and heating duct and return-air vents, remove the coverplate, seal, and replace.  For light fixtures and ceiling fans, remove the fixture to its base plate, seal, and replace.  Most species can be harvested with insect light traps (ILTs) from problem areas such as attics and false-ceiling voids.

Clovermite   
 
INTRODUCTION. 
The common name comes from clover being one of the preferred host plants of this mite.  This is a nuisance pest which sometimes invades structures by thousands, primarily in the autumn.  It is distributed worldwide and is found throughout the Unties States.

RECOGNITION.  Adults about 1/64” (0.75 mm) long.  Body oval, soft, dorsoventrally flattened (top to bottom).  Color often dark red, also olive green or rusty brown.  Dorsum with 2 shields weekly defined, reticulate (with a network of fine lines), and not protruding over mouthparts; propodosoma (dorsal, front area) with 4 pairs of hairs (setae) and propodosoma with 4 lobes, each with 1 fringed hair (seta).  Mouthparts with cheliceral bases fused, separated from ventral rostrum, chelicerae long, recurved, and whiplike; palpus  5 segmented, with distinct thumb-claw process.  Ocelli present on propodosoma (dorsal, front area). Stigmata (breathing pore opening plate) 2 in number, located behind cheliceral bases, absent on hysterosoma (dorsolateral area between 2nd and 3rd pair of legs).  Legs with 1st pair very long, about twice length of 2nd pair, held forward like antennae; tarsi with padlike empodia (enlarged pretarsal/terminal structure) and claws terminating in a pair of tenant hairs (suckerlike adhesive setae).  Genital opening transverse.  Plant feeders.  Note that there are 15-20 different morphological forms of the clover mite.  Immature stages are bright red in color.

SIMILAR GROUPS.  (1) Brown wheat mite (Petrobia lateens; Tetranychidae) has tarsi with claws padlike and empodium hooklike, with 2 rows of ventrally directed tenant (suckerlike) hairs/setae, and propodosoma (dorsal, front area) with 3 pairs of hairs (setae).  (2) Winter grain mite (Penthaleus major; Penthaleidae) with chelicerae short and terminating with 2 teeth, palps 4 segmented and lacking a thumb-claw process; proposodoma (dorsal, front area) apex with a tubercle bearing 2 hairs (setae); 1st and 4th pair of legs longer than 2nd and 3rd pairs, tarsi with 2 claws and empodium; and genital opening ventral, with 2 pairs of suckers.

BIOLOGY.  Clover mites reproduce parthenogenetically (without fertilization); males are unknown in the United States .  A female will lay about 70 spherical red eggs, typically throughout the summer and autumn.  Eggs become dormant about 75F/24C and also inactive below 40F/4C.  Eggs laid in the autumn hatch the following spring.  Developmental stages include egg, larva, protonymph, deutonymph, and adult.  Larvae have only 3 pairs of legs whereas, nymphs and adults have 4 pairs.  One generation or life cycle (egg to egg) typically requires about 1 month, with optimal developmental temperature being 65-69F/18-20C.  Several generations can be completed during the autumn, winter, and spring.

HABITS.  Clover mites are plant feeders only.  They feed on some 200 different plant species including trees, shrubs, flowers, grass and agricultural/garden crops.  Around structures they show a preference for heavily fertilized grass lawns.  The spherical red eggs can sometimes bee seen on foundation walls and/or in foundation cracks.  They are also laid on vegetation.   Sometimes in the autumn the number of eggs can be large enough to give the surface they are on a fuzzy red appearance.

The invasion of structures by enormous numbers of clover mites usually occurs in the autumn as the vegetation dies, with them numbering in the hundreds of thousands.  In Pennsylvania , the greatest number of structural invasions occur in April (40%), with May (23%) being second highest.  Springtime structural invasions are usually associated with new mulch being applied to plant beds and shrubbery around the foundation.  Invasion is typically through cracks around windows and doors or through masonry cracks.  They will come up behind siding until an entryway is found.

Clover mites are active during times of cooler weather and become dormant/inactive during hot weather.  In Illinois and Pennsylvania , they become dormant in May and remain so until September.  In the eastern United States , these mites can be found in infested homes from November until May or June, with nuisance activity highest during the spring.

These mites will leave a reddish spot/smear/stain if crushed.  This can cause problems on wallpaper, drapes, window shades, stuffed furniture, carpets, etc.

White clover and black medic are the preferred host plants with Kentucky bluegrass, bentgrass, red fescue, redtop and chickweed a close second.  Ornamentals and flowering plants are less preferred.

CONTROL.  An 18” (45cm) grass-free strip/band around the structure’s perimeter can reduce the number of invaders by about 90%.  This strip/band combined with application of an appropriately labeled pesticide as a perimeter treatment are most effective.  The application should go up about 2 ft (.6m) on the foundation wall or to the bottom of any siding and come out about 6-10 ft (1.8-3m) from the foundation.  Pay particular attention to the soil/grass junction with the masonry wall and cracks in the masonry wall.  Microencapsulated and wettable powder formulations work best. 

Timing of the application is crucial and must occur before the summer inactivity period begins.  This would be before mid-May in Pennsylvania and probably before the first week of May further south.

Inside, clover mites should only be removed with a vacuum which will reduce or avoid red smears and stains.  Indoor applications of pesticides will only give temporary relief if outdoor control measures are not done.

Red flour beetle   
 

INTRODUCTION
The red flour beetle gets its common name from its coloration and its habit of infesting flour. It is one of the most important pests of stored products found in the home and in grocery stores. It is of Indo-Australian origin and now occurs worldwide in the warmer climates. In the United States, it is found primarily in the southern states.

RECOGNITION
Adults about 1/8” (3-4 mm) long. Color reddish brown. Antennae with abrupt, 3-segmented club. Sides of thorax rounded. Wings functional but commonly flies only short distances. Except for antennal and thorax differences, almost identical to confused flour beetle.

SIMILAR GROUPS
(1) Confused flour beetle (Tribolium confusum) have antennae gradually clubbed, club 4-segmented.
(2) Broadhorned (Gnathocerus cornutus) and slenderhorned (G. maxillosus) flour beetles lack antennal club, male mandibles armed with a pair of incurved horns, length about 1/8” (4.2 mm and 3.2 mm respectively).
(3) Black (Tribolium audax) and false black (T. destructor) flour beetles black, length about ¼” (5-6 mm and 6-7 mm respectively).
(4) Longheaded flour beetle (Latheticus oryzae) pale yellow brown, antennae loosely clubbed with last segment smaller and/or narrower than preceding segment.
(5) Lesser mealworm (Alphitobius diaperinus) with eye almost completely divided, length about ¼” (5-6 mm).
(6) Yellow (Tenebrio molitor) and dark (T. obscurus) mealworms black, length about ½-3/4” (12-20 mm).

BIOLOGY
The red flour beetle female deposits about 300-500 clear-white sticky eggs on or among food materials in cracks, in bags, or through the mesh of sacks containing food. The female lays 2-3 eggs per day, but lives for 2-3 years. The eggs hatch in 5-12 maturity in about 30 days under optimal conditions. The life cycle (egg to egg) can be completed in only 7 weeks, or it may require 3 months or longer. In heated storage facilities and processing plants, there are 4 or 5 generations annually.

HABITS
These beetles are unable to feed on whole kernels or undamaged grain. They have been recorded attacking grains and grain products, peas, beans, shelled nuts, dried fruits, spices, milk chocolate, drugs, snuff, cayenne pepper, and herbarium, insect, and other museum specimens. They are attracted to flour of high moisture content.

Adults can fly and are attracted to light.

Although humans are not injured by it, red flour beetles do impart a disagreeable odor and taste to the flour they infest.

CONTROL
Follow the standard control procedures for stored product pests.

American Dog Tick  

INTRODUCTION
This tick's common name comes from the fact that it is only found in North America and that domestic dogs are the favorite host of the adults. Although not a structural pest, it is commonly found on dogs and readily attacks humans. It is of medical importance because it vectors the causal organisms of Rocky Mountain spotted fever and tularemia, and also causes tick paralysis. It is found throughout the United States except for the area of the Rocky Mountains, and in Canada and Mexico.

RECOGNITION
Unengorged adult female about 3/16" (5 mm) long, male slightly smaller (about 1/8"3.6 mm; engorged female up to about 5/*" (15 mm) long, 3/8" (10 mm) wide. Body oval, dorsoventrally flattened (top to bottom). Color brown with whitish to grayish markings often with silvery hue (ornamentation) on scutum (dorsal shield). Scutum (dorsal shield just behind mouthparts) restricted to front half of dorsum in female, almost completely covers dorsum in male except for festoons. Eyes on margin of scutum. Capitulum (mouthparts and their base) visible from above; basis capituli (bas for mouthparts) rectangular with sides not laterally produced/angular, about as long as mouthparts; 2nd segment of palpi about as long as wide, not laterally produced. Abdominal festoons (rectangular areas divided by grooves along posterior margin) 11 in number, anal grove present, posterior anus. Spiracular plate (ventral/bottom, near margin just behind 4th coxae, 1 pair) broad, usually with blunt process reaching dorsum, globlets (round structures) very small and numerous.

Both larvae (6 legs) and nymphs (8 legs) with red markings near eyes and lack white on scutum; unengorged 1st instar larvae about 1/64" (0.59-0.64 mm) long, yellow, becoming gray to black when engorged; unengorged 2nd instar nymphs about 1/32" (0.9 mm) long, pale yellowinsh, becoming slate gray when engorged.

SIMILAR GROUPS
(1) Rocky Mountain wood tick (Dermacentor andersoni) with spiracular plate globlets (around structures) moderate in size and number, found in Rocky Mountain area only. (2) Winter tick (Dermacentor albipictus) and brown winter tick (Dermacentor nigrolineatus) with spiracular pate oval, ;backing prolongation, and globlets few and large: in addition, brown winter tick scutum (dorsal shield just behind mouthparts) with little or no whitish/grayish markings. (3) Pacific Caost tick (Dermacentor occidentalis) with posterior/rear lateral extensions of basis capituli (base for mouthparts) long, length equal to or greater than width. (4) Tropical horse tick (Anocentor nitens) with 7 abdominal festoons (rectangular area divided by grooves along posterior margin) and hypostome (middle mouthpart) with denticles (teeth on venters) in 8 row (vs. 6 rows for Dermacentor spp.).

BIOLOGY
The engorged female dr off the host and seeks a sheltered place to lay her eggs. Over 14-32 days she lays egg masse totaling 4,000-6,500 yellowish-brown eggs, and then she dies. Egg hatch usually occurs in 36-57 days. Unfed larvae actively crawl about seeking a host. They can survive for up to 540 days unfed. Larvae require about 4 days (range 3-13 days) to become engorged, then drop off the host and seek shelter for molting purposes. Usually 10+ days (range 6-247) are required from drop to nymphal emergence. Unfed nymphs actively crawl about seeking a host. Engorgement usually requires about 6 days (range 3-12) but they can survive for up to 584 day unfed. After feeding, they drop off the host and seek shelter in which to molt. Molting usually requires 24 days (range 24-291). Adults crawl up on grass or other low vegetation and wait for a host to pass. After both sexes have fed, females are completely engorged in about 10.5 days (range 5-27 days), mating occurs on the host. Males continue to feed Bu t females drop off to lay their eggs. Females require a 3-58 day preoviposition or waiting period before egg laying begins. unfed adults can survive for about 2-3 years (up to 1,053 days). The entire life cycle (egg to egg) requires 3 months to more than one year, and both larvae and nymphs can overwinter. In the northern states, a 2-year life cycle may be more common.

American dog ticks are the primary vector of Rocky mountain spotted fever in the eastern United States, which they transmit from small animals. This is a severe, acute, infectious disease of the small peripherals blood vessels caused by the rittettsial organism whose characteristics symptom is a rash which develops in 2-5 days, starting with the wrists and ankles and then spreads all over the body. Mortality in humans is 20% or more. Fortunately, attachment for 2 hours or more is required for transmission.

These ticks also transmit tularemia which is caused by a bacillus and is transmitted from rabbits, meadow mice, ground squirrels, sheep, beavers, coyotes, and various game birds. Symptoms include chills and fever, prostration, an ulcer at the tick-bite site, and tender, swollen lymph nodes.

In addition, American dog ticks can cause tick paralysis when they attach on the back of the neck or at the base of the skull and feed for at least 5-6 days. Paralytic symptoms usually start in the extremities and become evident as unsteadiness and loss of reflex actions. If the tick is not removed, death may result from respiratory failure; children are particularly susceptible. If the tick is removed, recovery is rapid and usually with in 24-72 hours.

Deticking dogs is an important way that Rocky Mountain spotted fever is spread. Handpicking is dangerous because infected tick secretions on the hands can be transmitted via contact with eyes, mucous membranes, etc.; use forceps for removal.

HABITS
The American dog tick does not survive well indoors. If found indoors, it was probably carried in on a dog and dropped off when fully engorged to seek a suitable place for egg laying.

This is a 3-host tick, with each stage requiring a different host. Both larvae and nymphs actively crawl about seeking a small mammalian host, primarily rodents; host include the white footed mouse (Peromyscus), meadow mouse (Microtus), cotton rat (Sigmodon), cottontail and swamp rabbits (Sylvilagus), muskrat (Ondatra), norway rat (Rattus norvegicus berkenhout), squirrel, and cat. larvae alone are known from house mouse (Mus musculus (Linnaeus)), jack rabbit (Lepus), and mole (Scalopus aquaticus (linnaeus)). Nymphs alone are known from the wood rat (Neotoma), sheep, cattle, and dog. because of this kind of host seeking activity, neither larvae nor nymph are picked up on tick drags.

Adults crawl up grass or other low vegetation, cling to it with their 3rd pair of legs, and wave their other legs about ready to grasp onto any passing host; this is called their "waiting position." They prefer larger mammals as hosts and the preferred dog and others such as man, cattle, opossum, coyote, hog, horse, raccoon, ild cat, squirrel, sheep, skunk, deer, fox, domestic cat, mule, rabbit, Norway rat, ground squirrel, donkey/burro, weasel, and woodchuck.

American dog ticks are attracted by the scent of animals and are therefore most numerous along roads, paths, and trails. The concentration is further increased along such travel routes by the dropping of engorged ticks from their host animal.

Larval and nymphal activity usually starts about the end of march, representing those which overwintered, and continues t mid-July. nymphal activity predominates from June to early September. Adults become active about mid-April, peak in June, and decline until mid-September.

CONTROL
Reducing the likelihood of being fed upon by American dog ticks can be separated into 4 considerations.

1. Personal protection. Keep trouser legs tucked into socks or boots, shirt tucked in, and clothes buttoned. Avoid sitting on logs, stumps, or the ground in brushy areas. Periodically inspect clothing and the body for ticks to remove them before they become attached.

If a tick is found attached, remove it with a slow steady pull that will not break off the mouthparts and leave them in the skin. It is best to use forceps whose tips are placed on or just behind the mouthparts. If fingers are used, place the fingernails of thumb and index finger on or just behind the mouthparts but be sure to wash thoroughly with soap and water afterwards. A drop of fingernail polish, Vaseline, or rubbing alcohol to cove the tick's body may help but be sure to wait about 5-30 minutes for the mouthparts to be withdrawn before pulling. Be sure to clean the attachment area.

Liberal use of tick repellents is helpful, including application to clothing.

2. Habitat modification. Keep the grass cut 3" (7.5 cm) or less; this also reduces rodent habitat. Trim back vegetation along tails, paths, and yard edges. Remove debris and ground cover to discourage rodents.

3. Removal of hosts. The reduction or elimination of rodents in the area immediately surrounding the house is helpful. This can be done by the use of rodenticides and/or traps.

4. Pesticide application. In heavily infested areas the application of an appropriately labeled pesticide may be advisable. Concentrate on the areas most likely to harbor ticks such as along paths, trails, and roads, and yard-woods interface. The 1st application should be in the early spring to reduce the larvae and nymphs which overwintered.

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